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Memory
collection of interconnected and interacting systems that have distinguishable functions
represented by different neural mechanisms
human memory acts as if it were a single system
each system process and stores information in different ways
Stages of memory
three stages memory occur as a sequence
they are interact and are interdependent
Encoding —> Storage —> Retrieval
Encoding
process of converting information into a form that can be sorted and represented in memory
may be automatic or effortful
essential for information being stored
the better encoded, the easier retrieval
requires selective attention to the material to be encoded
Types of encoding
visual encoding: is the processing of images
acoustic encoding: the processing of sound
semantic encoding: the processing of meaning
Automatic Encoding
involves encoding information about location in space and time and frequency of experience
Effortful Encoding
involves attending to information, labelling then associating it with other things in memory or rehearsing it.
Storage
the retention of information in memory over time
3 stages of memory storage:
sensory storage
short-term storage
long-term storage
Retrieval
the process of locating and recovering stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it
can be fast or require effort
involves various elements of cues, moods, schema and subject to errors
Atkinson and Shiffrin Models
characterised by a specific duration and capacity
Duration
how long the store is able to hold information
Capacity
how many units of information it can hold
Sensory Memory Store
do not process information
receive sensory information from the environment
temporary storage system
duration is 0.2-4 seconds, occasionally up to 10
capacity is unlimited
if no attention is paid, information i slost
Stores sensory impressions long enough for each to overlap to ensure that we perceive the external environment as continuous rather than disjointed pieces of information.
short-term memory
memory system in which information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way
capacity: 7 plus or minus 2 units
duration: 18-20 seconds, occasionally 30 secs unlessed renewed.
aka working memory
consciously use information from SM and LTM
Displacement
when one unit replaces another when capacity is reached
Decay
to break down/ fall apart
AKA to forget
Chunking Information
increased ability to recall second or third sequence
groups separate bits of information into larger units or ‘chunks’
e.g phone numbers
Rehearsal
the condition for increasing the duration of STM and transferring information to LTM
the longer you rehearse information, the longer the information stay in the STM, eventually consolidated and enters the long-term memory store
Long-term Memory
a place for storing large amounts of information for indefinite periods of time
although the capacity of LTM is potentially unlimited, not all information is easily retrievable
it is not storing, but retrieving information that can be problematic
two main types:
Explicit memory
Implicit memory
each type differs in the way that they retrieve and express information
each has its own neural mechanism and can interact when needed
Explicit memory
memory with awareness
Episodic memory
personal experiences and events
Semantic memory
facts and knowledge
Implicit memory
memory without awareness
Procedural memory
motor skills and actions
Classically conditioned memory
conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli
Serial position effect
refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item’s position within a study list
Recency effect
items at the end of the list are still present in the STM as they haven’t been processed long enough into LTM
Primary effect
the initial items in the list are effectively stored in LTM because of greater amounts of attention/processing
Strengths of A&S model
significant experimental and biological research to support the theory of separate memory stores
gave psychologists a way to talk about memory, and was also used for further research
Limitations of A&S model
over-simplified
it assumes each of the stores work as an independent unit
does not explain
memory distortion
how things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal (trauma)
time that we rehearse a lot to remember information and it is not transferred to LTM
Working model of memory
Central executive broken to 3 parts:
phonological loop
episodic buffer
visuo-spatial sketchpad
entering long-term memory storage
Central Executive
replaces the “sensory buffer”
directs attention towards tasks
allocates information based on modality
Phonological Loop
limited capacity (like MSM’s STM store)
deals with auditory information and language
Visuospatial Sketchpad
limited capacity (like MSM’s STM store)
visual and/or spatial information is stored here
visual cache
the inner scribe
Visual cache
what things look like
stores information about form and colour
The Inner Scribe
processes spatial and movement information
The Episodic Buffer
Dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial and verbal information with time sequencing
e.g memory of a story, event or movie scene
Strengths of the WMM
supported by considerable experimental evidence
supports the idea that there are different parts of memory for visual and verbal tasks
case studies of patients with brain damage support the theory that there is more than one STM store
helps us understand why were able to multi-tasks in some situations and not in others
Limitations of the WMM
the role of the central executive is unclear
how the various components of the model interact is not yet clear
only really explains STM, doesn’t rly explain processes involved in LTM
does not explain memory distortion or the role of emotion in memory formation
Note 
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