Psychology Midterm 1 - Lecture

Neuroscience

the scientific study of the hardware of the brain, like the nervous system and anatomy of the brain

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of the processes of the brain

Affective science

the scientific study of emotions

Social psychology

the scientific study of how people interact

Developmental psychology

the scientific study of how processes change across lifespan

Clinical psychology

the scientific study of what breakdowns of processes look like and how to fix them

Theory

a proposal about how things in the world relate to each other and why

Research question

questions that need to be answered to determine if the theory is correct

Research design

a set of methods for testing the hypothesis

Hypothesis

a specific prediction about what will happen given the theory

Data

quantifiable observations that can be analyzed

Descriptive designs

describes what we mean by using operational definitions

Operational definitions

translate the variable we want to access into a concrete, specific procedure or measurement

Descriptive statistics

describe data using things like central tendency, such as a dot plot, as well as the variability

Central tendency

mean, median, and mode

Variability

range and standard deviation

Correlational designs

how two or more variables are related - might use scatterplot

Correlation coefficient

r, a measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables (the stronger the correlation, the more accurately you can guess/predict value y from value x)

David Hume’s Principle of Association

correlation does not necessarily mean causality

The directionality problem

when you don’t know which is the cause and which is the effect

The third variable problem

there’s another explanation for correlation, some third variable that wasn’t controlled or accounted for

Experimental designs

need manipulated and measured variables - can be between-subjects or within-subjects - randomization is important as well as control for extraneous factors/variables

Manipulation

systemic control of a variable being studied

Measurement

systemic quantifiable observation of a variable being studied

Randomization

the process by which experiment participants are assigned by chance to separate groups that are given different treatments

Independent variable

manipulated variables

Dependent variable

measured variables

Between-subjects

only one condition for each level of variable

Within-subjects

everyone experiences each condition

Ravizza et al’s study of student internet use in class

non-academic internet use in the classroom is negatively related to classroom learning regardless of intellectual ability

Inferential statistics

used to infer if these statistics reflect a broad, general population

The null hypothesis

the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between variables and that any difference is due to chance

p-value

probability that we get difference from a population where null hypothesis is true

if p-value is

t-test

used to find p-value, (difference between the group means)/(variability of the groups)

Self-selection

the bias that can occur when individuals are allowed to choose whether they want to participate in a research study

Demand characteristics

cues that might indicate the aim of a study to participants. (these cues can lead to participants changing their behaviors or responses based on what they think the research is about)

Double-blind procedures

when neither the researcher nor the participant knows what group they are in

Reliability

consistency

\*measure can be reliable without being valid\*

Validity

accuracy

\*measure cannot be valid without being reliable\*

Replicability

accuracy of research conclusions, and whether they can be obtained again using the same procedures in new studies

Proximate explanations

point to immediate causes of the behavior (within lifetime of an individual)

Ultimate explanations

point to long-term causes of the behavior (within your species)

Charles Darwin

studied natural selection (the idea that in competition, individuals with certain traits have an advantage, those individuals are more likely to pass those traits, these traits then become more frequent), wrote The Origin of the Species (1859), argued that given the 3 facts of life, changes in population characteristics are inevitable

Darwin’s 3 facts of life

\-variation - within a species, there is variance

\-heredity - parents and their offspring resemble each other

\-competition - members of species compete for food, mates

Gene

nucleotide sequence, the unit of inheritance

Sexual selection

species adapts to better find a mate - like lyrebird

The naturalistic fallacy

mistaken belief that because something is a product of natural selection, it is necessarily good

Parental investment theory

women are more choosey with sexual partners because women bear higher reproductive burden

Clarke and Hatfield’s “date” request study

\-men's yes responses increased as suggestion became more sexual

\-women's yes responses decreased as suggestion became more sexual

The “speed dating” study

\-the sex that did not move was choosier

The Tinder study

\-women get more matches than men

Buss’s studies on the importance of financial prospects and age difference of preferred spouse

\-men want younger spouses, care more about age

\-women want more financially stable spouses, care more about financial prospects

OK Cupid study

\-women prefer men older than them when they are young and slightly younger than them when they are older

DeBruine’s study of female masculinity preferences across cultures

\-masculine features matter less in cultures where healthcare is widely available

The T-shirt study

\-men were more attracted to women who were ovulating than those who weren’t

Zentner and Mitura’s study of the relationship between sex differences in the mating psychology and gender equality

\-smaller differences in spousal preference between genders in societies where there is greater gender equality

Francis Crick

Helped decipher the double helical structure of DNA, and developed the “astonishing hypothesis”

“The astonishing hypothesis”

you are no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules - astonishing because it threatens the sense of self, threatens the idea of free will, and the idea that we are special or “more”

Descartes

French philosopher during the Enlightenment, that pioneered the concept of dualism

Dualism

idea that soul is different than your physicalities

Neurons

cells that communicate with each other to process information, over 100 billion, look different, 500 trillion neural connections

Glia

cells that structure and support, many different types, lots of them (but less than neurons)

Dendrites

cells that receive sensory information

Cell body

the part of a neuron (nerve cell) that contains the nucleus and most organelles

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Terminal buttons

the small knobs at the end of an axon that release chemicals called neurotransmitters

Synapse

the junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.

Resting membrane potential

difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell (-70mv), cell uses 20% energy to maintain this

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire, tug the cell to become more positive (depolarize)

Deporalize

resting potential of cell becomes more positive

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing, tug cell to become more negative (hyperpolarize)

Hyperpolarize

resting potential of cells becomes more negative

Action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell

Myelin

an insulating layer, or sheath, forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells - loss of myelin causes breakdown like MS

Salutatory conduction

a type of conduction of nerve impulses that occurs in myelinated fibers, in which the impulses skip from one node of Ranvier (gap in myelin sheath) to the next

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that your body can't function without

Neurotransmitter receptors

transmit the actions of bound neurotransmitters, thus enabling cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system

Reuptake pump

where the process by which neurotransmitter molecules that have been released at a synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron that released them occurs

Psychoactive drugs

external (exogenous) neuromodulators (have effects at every stage of neurotransmitter life)

Agonists

amplify the natural effect of neurotransmitters

4 ways to be an agonist:

\-induce increased synthesis (ex. DOPA)

\-increase the release of existing neurotransmitter (ex. amphetamine)

\-mimic neurotransmitters at postsynaptic receptor (ex. nicotine mimics acetylcholine)

\-reduce the action of reuptake channels (ex. SSRIs, Prozac, cocaine)

Antagonists

mute the natural effects of neurotransmitters

3 ways to be an antagonist:

\-interfere with release (botox for acetylcholine)

\-block receptor site from real neurotransmitters (antipsychotics)

\-cause leakage of neurotransmitters from vesicles (reserpine)

A Spider’s Web study

researchers gave Spider's drugs in hopes of disrupting sleep schedule in order to view web-making, however, spiders just spun really weird webs

Stimulants

make you more alert, awake (ex. caffeine, ADHD meds)

Depressants

make you sleepy, low energy (alcohol, anxiety meds)

Opiates

exogenous versions of opioids - reduce pain (morphine)

Hallucinogens/psychedelics

feelings of transcendence - used for spiritual methods or sometimes depression

Nigel Ackland

an amputee who is able to use a prosthetic arm like a real one after undergoing targeted muscle reinnervation

Targeted muscle reinnervation

enables amputees to control motorized prosthetic devices and to regain sensory feedback

1\.DOPA

2\.Reserpine

3\.Amphetamine

4\.Haloperidol

5\. Cocaine

1\.agonist

2\.antagonist

3\.agonist

4\.antagonist

5\.agonist

Thatcher illusion

when the eyes and the mouth are turned upside-down relative to the rest of the face—a transformation now known in the research literature as “Thatcherization”—the facial expression appears grotesque

Oliver Sacks

neuroscientist who wrote the book, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

The case of “Dr. P”

had agnosia and mistook his wife for a hat because he had agnosia due to damage to his left hemisphere

Agnosia

inability to recognize sensory stimuli

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize familiar faces

Invasive techniques:

\-Lesions

\-Single-cell electrophysiology

\-Electrical stimulation

\-pattern of damage and how it impacts behavior - look at accidental damage or intentionally inflict damage using stereotaxic instrument to see how it impacts behavior (causal or correlational)

\-listening to singular cells and record action potentials - see response through noise (correlational)

\-perform brain surgery while people were awake - stimulate areas of the brain to see what they do - can activate or deactivate regions of the brain temporarily (causal)

Non-invasive techniques:

\-Electroencephalogram (EEG)

\-Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

\-Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

\-position electrodes around the brain and listen to how their brain reacts to stimuli (correlational)

\-take pictures of the brain to see what areas of the brain are causing action - tracks oxygen in blood in brain to see what parts of the brain are most active (correlational)

\-using huge magnet to stimulate the brain to temporarily activate or deactivate regions of the brain (causal)

Stereotaxic instrument

determination of the exact location of a specific area within the body by means of three-dimensional measurements

Fusiform gyrus

area in the temporal lobe thought to be important in facial recognition, color processing, and word recognition

Hubel and Wiesel

performed experiment with sleepy cats

Wilder Penfield

mapped out the brain, created the “homunculus” that shows us what areas of the brain do what and how much brain surface area is given to different body parts