Social Influence

What is conformity?

- form of social influence whereby a person follows the majority

What are the three types of conformity?

- compliance
- identification
- internalisation

Who identified the three types of conformity?

- Kelman (1958)

What is compliance?

- publicly but not privately going along with majority to gain approval

What is identification?

- publicly + privately accepting majority in order to gain group acceptance

What is internalisation?

- public + private acceptance of majority influence
- through adoption of majority belief because view is consistent with own

What are the two explanations for conformity?

- normative social influence
- informative social influence

Who suggested the two explanations for conformity?

- Deustch + Gerrard (1995)

What is normative social influence?

- conform to majority to gain social approval or avoid social disapproval (do something in order to be liked)
- doesn't necessarily mean we agree with everyone else

What is informational social influence?

- suggests we have need to be right
- when situation is uncertain / ambiguous we look to others to know what to do
- sometimes follow what others do if we assume they might be an expert

What is the aim of Jenness (1932) study?

- to investigate whether individual judgements of jellybeans in a jar was influenced by group decision

What was the procedure of Jenness (1932) study?

1. participants made individual private estimates of number of jellybeans in jar
2. participant then discussed their estimates in groups
3. group estimates were created
4. participants again made individual private estimates of number of jellybeans in a jar

What were the finding of Jenness (1932) study?

- Jenness compared individual estimates made before + after group discussion + found that estimations tended to move towards group estimates

What was the conclusion of Jenness (1932) study?

- judgment of individuals are affected by majority opinion especially in ambiguous / unfamiliar situations

What is the aim of Asch's (1956) Research?

- to investigate degree to which social pressure from majority could affect person to perform

What is the method of Asch's (1956) Research?

- 123 American male student volunteers took part in what they thought was visual perception task (were deceived about true aim)
- carried out in lab using independent group designs
- each group made up of 7-9 confederates + 1 participant
- each person asked to decide which comparison line matched standard line (lines made obviously different in order to be sure of conforming)
- on 12 out of 18 trials confederate gave wrong answer (standardised so incorrect answer given on same trials)
- participant always last or second to last to give answer so able to hear confederates view first
- control group where one real participant completed same experiment without any confederates

How many student volunteers were in Asch's Research?

- 123 American male students

What are the results of Asch's (1956) Research?

- participants gave wrong answer 75% of time with 33% conforming to at least one answer
- 1/4 of participants never conformed to any of trials
- control error of 0.04% this was to check ambiguity of task + showed easy to identify difference between each line + what correct answer was
- post event interviews showed three reasons for conformity
- distortion of action -> majority conformed did so publicly not privately
- distortion of perception -> some participants believed their perception might be wrong
- distortion of judgement -> some participants had doubts concerning accuracy of judgement

What is distortion of action in Asch's Research?

- majority conformed did so publicly not privately

What is distortion of perception in Asch's Research?

- some participants believed their perception might be wrong

What is distortion of judgement in Asch's Research?

- some participants had doubts concerning accuracy of judgement

What is the conclusion of Asch's (1956) Research?

- participants were willing to ignore reality + give an incorrect answer in order to conform

What are situational factors?

- anything in environment that affects someone's behaviour

What are the three variables affecting conformity?

- group size
- unanimity of majority
- difficultly of task

How does group size affect conformity?

- original study there were 7-9 confederates
- variation minimum number of people needed to conform = 3
- 32% of people conformed when there were 3 confederates
- further increases did not have major influences on conformity levels
- concluded larger group size more likely conformity will occur up to point

How does the unanimity of the majority affect conformity?

- original study all confederates gave wrong answer (unanimous in decision)
- variation participant given support of another participant / confederate conformity dropped from 33% to 5%
- concluded when group disagrees with each other others less likely to conform to majority

How does the difficulty of the task affect conformity?

- original study differences between each line large + answer is obvious
- variation made lines less distinguishable from each other so task is harder
- conformity increased
- concluded harder the task the more likely people are to conform as answer is more ambiguous

What was the aim of Zimbardo's (1973) Standford Prison Experiment?

- to investigate extent to which people would conform to roles of prisoners + guards in simulated prison environment

What was the procedure of Zimbardo's (1973) Standford Prison Experiment?

- 75 made university students responded to newspaper asking for volunteers for prison study paying $15 per day
- 24 students rated most physically + mentally were chosen
- basement of Stanford university was converted into mock prison
- prisoners arrested from their homes without knowledge by county police
- when arrive they were stripped + deloused
- prisoners given smock, number, ball + chain
- guards wore khaki uniform, reflective sunglasses, baton + whistle
- guards + prison randomly assigned to roles

How many students were in Zimbarado's Standford Prison Experiment?

- 75 male university students responded
- 24 selected

What were the results of Zimbardo's Standford Prison Experiment?

- most of data was qualitative
- found all participants settled quickly into their roles
- guards created several rules + games such as counting numbers backwards, cleaning toilets + pretending to have gay marriage prisoners reporting feeling stressed + dehumanised
- rebellion by prisoners occurred because were told they weren't allowed to leave prison
- after 48 hours one prisoner had to be released as showed signs of mental breakdown
- after only 6 days experiment was stopped
- quantitative data showed 90% of conversations in the prison was about prison life this shows prisoner fully immersed themselves into role of prisoner

What was the conclusion of Zimbardo's (1973) Standford Prison Experiment?

- study showed that participants conformed to their social roles of prisoners + guards
- started to become deinvidulated (lost personal identity + took on identity of group)

What is obedience?

- complying with demands of an authority figure (anyone who has power over situation)

What was the aim of Milgram's (1963) Experiment?

- to investigate whether ordinary American citizens would obey unjust order from authority figure + inflict pain on another person because they were instructed to

What is the method of Milgram's (1963) Experiment?

- sample consisted of 40 male participants + were volunteers who responded to advert $4.50 to take part + payed as soon as arrived
- told experiment was on "punishment and learning"
- laboratory at Yale University
- met with experimenter + other participant (Mr Wallace) who both confederates
- experimenter explained one participant randomly assigned role of teacher + other learner
- real participant always teacher
- teacher read learner series of word pairs then test recall
- teacher instructed to administer electric shock every time learner made mistake + increase voltage after each mistake
- participant given sample electric shock to convince procedure was real
- learner's screams recorded to become louder + more dramatic + after 300 volts become silent
- experiment continued until teacher refused to continue or 450 volts reached
- if teacher tried to stop experiment the experimenter responded with series of prods like "the experiment requires you continue"
- (participants deceived)

How many people took part in Milgram's Experiment?

- 40 male participants

What were the quantitative results of Milgram's (1963) Experiment?

- found that all of participants went to at least 300 volts + 65% continued until full 450 volts

What were the qualitative results of Milgram's (1963) Experiment?

- participants experienced severe psychological distress including shaking, sweating + uncontrollable seizures
- 84% of participants said were glad to have taken part
- prior to study Milgram had asked 14 psychology students to predict participants behaviour students estimated only 3% would continue to 450 volts
- suggests findings were unexpected

What was the conclusion of Milgram's (1963) Experiment

- concluded that under right circumstances ordinary people will obey unjust orders

What are the three situation variables that affect obedience in Milgram's Variations?

- proximity
- location
- power of uniform

What was the baseline percentage for Milgrams Variations?

- 65%

What did Milgram do in the proximity variation?

- changed distance of experimenter to be further away (phone)
- confederate nearer (same room) rather than experimenter in same room
- different room to confederate

How did the percentage change when the teacher and learner were in the same room?

- from 65% to 40%

How did the percentage change when the teacher was forced to put learner hand on electric metal plate

- from 65% to 30%

How did the percentage change when the teacher and experimenter were in a different room?

- from 65% to 21%

What can Milgram conclude from the proximity variation?

- closer teacher was to learner the less likely he was to continue the shocks
showed reduced obedience
- closer teacher was to experimenter more likely e was to obey

What did Milgram do in the location variation?

- Milgram changed location to run down office in Bridgeport, Connecticut rather than prestigious university

In the location variation how did the percentage change?

- from 65% to 47.5%

What can Milgram conclude from the location variation?

- obidience decreased in less prestigious environment
- could be due to being seen as less legitimate as participant did not feel experimenter would take responsibility

What did Milgram do in the power of uniform variation?

- experimenter wore casual clothes instead of lab coat

In the power of uniform variation how did the percentage change?

- from 65% to 48%

What can Milgram conclude from the power of uniform variation?

- wearing uniform can increase levels of obedience as it shows level of authority they have to the participant

What is a dispositional factor?

- personality factors / characteristics
- (introversion, extroversion, neuroticism, stability)

Who proposed the authoritarian personality?

- Fromm (1941)

What is an authoritarian personality?

- way of explaining those with right wing views
- personality type characterised by a belief in absolute obedience to authority + domination of minorities

What is the F-scale?

- questionnaire to measure levels of authoritarian personality
- F = Fascism + used to measure how likely you are to obey authority figures
- example question "obedience + respect for authority are the most important virtues a child should learn"

What did the F-Scale procedure involve?

- asking 2000 middle class white American's to answer questionnaire

What was the main problem with the F-Scale sample?

- has cultural + class biases means sample isn't representative of obedience in all individuals

What did Adorno find the F-Scale showed?

- found authoritarian personalities are more likely to obey authority figures
- was strong positive correlation between authoritarianism + prejudice
- more likely to be hostile to those inferior to them, have rigid opinions + beliefs + uphold traditional values

What traits do individuals with an authoritarian personality likely to show?

- hostile + aggressive to those inferior to them
- ethnocentric
- black + white thinkers
- inflexible to rules / laws

Where did the authoritarian personality believed to have developed from?

- Adorno believed developed in early childhood gaining information about obedience to authority

What can the authoritarian personality be taught through?

- punishing + shaming children from even minor offences making them hostile to people who are inferior to them

What was the procedure for Elm's and Milgram's follow up experiment?

- asked participants who took part in Milgram's study to complete follow up questionnaire
- selected 20 defiant participants + 20 submissive participants to complete F-scale questionnaire

What were the findings for Elm's and Milgram's follow up experiment?

- those who were more submissive were likely to have higher scores on the F-scale

What does Elm's and Milgram's follow up experiment show about the authoritarian personality?

- suggests authoritarian personality is linked to your likelihood to obey authority figures

What is a socio-psychological explanation?

- refers to influence others have on your own behaviour rather than other external factors (such as situational)

What is the agentic state?

- when person sees themselves as agent for carrying out another person's wishes
- instead believe responsibility is held by authority figure

What is the agentic shift?

- move responsibility from ourselves to an authority figure
- autonomous state -> agentic state

What is the autonomous state?

- take responsibility for their own actions

How did participants enter the agentic state in Milgram's experiment?

- participants interviewed after + asked why administered electric shocks
- majority of people said they were just doing what they were told
- suggests participants had entered agentic state

Why do people stay in the agentic state even when they are asked to do something negative?

- are social people so look for approval from others therefore tend to follow social etiquette of the situation
- this is binding factor which holds us to situation + makes us obey

What is the binding factor of Milgram's experiment?

- participant agrees to do experiment + therefore appearing rude / arrogant if refuse to continue

What is a legitimate authority?

- someone who we perceive to be in a position of power + therefore has control over the situation

What did Milgram believe about legitimate authority and an example of it?

- Milgram (1974) believed people presume that in most situations there is a person who has control over the situation
- for example in Milgram's study the participants have expectation that someone will be in charge of experiment + when the experimenter presents himself he makes it clear that he is in charge of experiment
- this allows participant to identify him as legitimate authority figure + therefore authority goes unquestioned

What are destructive authority figures?

- legitimate authority that can sometimes cause to behave in negative way

What is a real life example of a destructive authority figure?

- real life example of this is the American soldiers in the village of My Lai who murdered 500 villagers after they were expecting Vietnamese fighters to be there but just found old men, women + child
- the soldiers claimed at their trials that they were just following the orders of their superior officer

What are the two ways resistance to social influence can occur?

- independence
- anti conformity

What is independence?

- lack of consistent movement either towards or away form social expectancy
- "doing your own thing"

What is anti conformity?

- consistent movement away from majority group views
- "adopting beliefs of smaller groups"

Who identified locus of control as a personality dimension (trait)?

- Rotter

What is a locus of control?

- extent to which people believe they are in control of own lives

What is a high internal locus of control?

- believe you can affect the outcomes of your situations

What is a high external locus of control?

- believe things turn out a certain way regardless of your actions
- "everything happens for a reason"

What type of high locus of control are more likely to resist social influence?

- high internal locus of control

Why are people with high internal locus of control more likely to resist social influence?

- believe things happen as result of own decisions rather than luck or fate
- see themselves in control of situation more likely to perceive themselves as having free choice to conform or obey

What is social support?

- feeling of solidarity among yourself + others makes you less likely to conform in a social situation

How did Asch change his experiment to have social support?

- had one confederate give the right answers to matching line task every time

What were the results of Asch changing his experiment to have social support?

- conformity dropped to 5.5%
- suggests it is important in reducing conformity

How did Milgram change his experiment to have social support?

- had two confederates who were acting as participants alongside real participant
- gave electric shocks together
- each confederate told to refuse to continue + leave experiment at different points

What were the results of Milgram changing his experiment to have social support?

- obedience dropped from 65% to 10%
- shows social support is important in resisting social influence

What is minority social influence?

- majority of people are persuaded to adopt the beliefs, attitudes + behaviours of minority
- form of social influence

How do minority influencers show internalisation?

- have drive to do right thing as publicly + privately believe that is the best thing to do

What is minority influence driven by?

- need to be right (informational social influence)

What is commitment in terms of minority social influence?

- degree to which members of minority are dedicated to cause / activity

How does commitment impact minority social influence?

- greater the perceived assurance the greater the influence
- people in minority are taking risk going against social norms therefore showing confidence in their beliefs helps to influence others in strength of their belief
- usually requires them to take part in activity which is socially / physically risky

What is consistency in terms of minority social influence?

- stability in expressed position over time + agreement among members of minority

How does consistency impact minority influence?

- when exposed to minority view immediate thought is that must be incorrect
- if minority are stable in views over period of time people gain confidence in them

What is flexibility in terms of minority social influence?

- willingness to be adaptable + to compromise when expressing a position

How does flexibility impact minority influence?

- minorities hold little power must negotiate to show willing to compromise
- however should not be overly compromising as are likely to show lack of consistency

What are the three particular behaviours styles can a minority show to change the majority opinion?

- commitment
- consistency
- flexibility