psych & soc mcat practice test 1

semantic memory

memory of facts, concepts, and general knowledge

rote memory

built through repetition and rehearsal, often without deep understanding; surface-level recall

procedural memory

how to perform certain tasks or actions — implicit and can perform the action without thinking about it

episodic memory

memory of personal experiences and specific events

altruism

a behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to oneself

unfounded assumption

belief or ideas that lack evidence or justification (ppl with tattoos are irresponsible)

societal expectations/ perceptions

widely held views within a culture or community (men shouldnt show emotion, success means owning  a home)

differential association

individuals learn deviant behavior through their interactions with others who engage in that behavior

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to attribute others’ behavior to internal characteristics rather than external factors

labeling theory

claims that society labels and categorizations influence individuals’ behavior and self-perception

strain theory

explains deviance as a result of disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute our own actions to situational factors, but others’ actions to dispositional traits

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute successes to internal traits and failures to external circumstances

social class and urbanization

lower social classes face more health issues, living in informal settlements lacking proper sanitation

major depressive disorder

persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest

borderline personality disorder

instability in mood, relationships, self-image, and behavior

antisocial personality disorder

disregard for others, lack of empathy, deceitful, impulsive

histrionic personality disorder

excessive emotionality, attention-seeking, shallow relationships

narcissistic personality disorder

grandiosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy

paranoid personality disorder

distrustful, suspicious of others’ motives, interprets benign actions as threats

schizoid personality disorder

detached from social relationships, emotionally cold, prefers solitude

schizotypal personality disorder

eccentric behavior, magical thinking, social anxiety, odd speech or beliefs

avoidant personality disorder

social inhibition, hypersensitivity to rejection, desires connection but fears embarrassment

dependent personality disorder

excessive need to be cared for, submissive, fears separation, struggles with decision-making

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

preoccupied with order, perfectionism, control. no true obsessions nor compulsions

functionalism

each aspect of society depends on each other and each contributes to overall stability and functioning of that society for efficiency/ integration

conflict theory

society is viewed as a battleground where different groups compete for power and resources due to inequalities and imbalances, leading to social conflicts and societal changes

inductive reasoning

specific observations—>pattern recognition—>general conclusion

deductive reasoning

existing theory—>hypothesis—>collect data—>analyze—>do/dont reject hypothesis

hair cell function

reside in cochlea; convert mechanical energy from sound waves into electrical signals for the brain to interpret

malthusian theory

concern for population growth to outpace resource availability

geometric rate

exponential growth (human population)

arithmetic rate

linear growth (resources)

social cognitive theory (SCT)

individuals who believe in their ability to perform a behavior are more likely to engage in and persist with that behavior

self-efficacy

an individual’s belief in their ability to succeed at a specific task or goal

associative learning

making connections between different stimuli or between a behavior and its consequence

mirror neuron system

brain cells that fire when a person performs an action and they observe someone else performing the same action

confirmation bias

the tendency of one to remember information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while disregarding or downplaying contradictory evidence

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of something based on how easily examples come to mind

representative heuristic

judging something based on how well it matches a prototype or stereotype

hindsight bias

believing you knew it all along after an event has occurred

primary appraisals

initial evaluation of a stressor’s significance (whether a situation is threatening, harmful, or challenging)

secondary appraisals

the evaluation of your ability to cope with the threat or challenge

primary reinforcement

a stimulus that is naturally rewarding and satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcement

a stimulus that becomes rewarding through association with a primary reinforcer

reaction formation

expressing the opposite of one’s true feelings or impulses when faced with unacceptable thoughts or emotions

projection

attributing one’s undesirable thoughts or feelings to another person (someone hostile believing someone else is hostile)

GABA

inhibits brain activity

agonist

activating/ enhancing

hypothalamus

regulates hunger drive

arousal

 a state of physiological and psychological alertness or activation.  stress can trigger high arousal levels, leading to changes in eating behavior as a coping mechanism

drive

relates to an internal motivation or urge to fulfill a need, such as hunger.  the level of drive can influence eating habits, but stress does not impact hunger, just behavior

correlation analysis

tests relationship strength between two continuous variables

chi-squared test

assessing relationship between categorical variables

independent samples t-test

compares means of two irrelevant groups to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between them

paired samples t-test

compares means of a variable within the same group across different time points/ conditions

cross-sectional study

shows a snapshot of a population at a single point in time

longitudinal study

follows the same individuals or communities over a period of time

ethnographic study

focuses on in-depth qualitative insights into cultural and lifestyle factors associated with obesity in urban and rural settings

experimental research study

implies manipulating variables to observe their effect on another variable

age stratification theory

examines social inequality among age groups

activity theory

suggests that individuals feel more satisfied when engages in active, purposeful activities

disengagement theory

states that aging is a process of mutual withdrawal between the individual and society

life course theory

examines the various transitions and events an individual might experience

upward mobility

moving individuals or families to a higher social class or economic level

spatial inequality

the unequal distribution of resources and services based on geographic area or location

occupational segregation

the distribution of people across and within occupations based on demographic characteristics, most often gender

glass ceiling effect

the invisible barrier that prevents certain demographics, often women and minorities, from advancing to the highest levels of an organization

histamine

pivotal neurotransmitter for wakefulness and alertness

substance P

neuropeptide associated with regulating mood and anxiety, modulating vomiting, and transmitting pain signals to the brain

oxytocin

a hormone and a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the regulation of emotional responses

insulin

a hormone that the pancreas produces that regulates blood sugar levels

stimulant

increase dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and action potentials. inhibition of reuptake, keeping neurotransmitter active in the synapse longer

tranquilizers and sedatives

act on GABA (enhance GABA receptors; GABA agonists)

opioid pain relievers

bind to mu-opioid receptors to inhibit pain signaling

non-opioid pain relievers

inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes

law of figure-ground

we instinctively separate visual scenes into the figure and the background

law of proximity

objects close together are perceived as being related or belonging to the same group

law of closure

tendency to complete unfinished shapes and perceive them as a whole

inclusive fitness

an organism’s success in passing on its genes through its own offspring, and also by supporting the reproductive success of others

stereotype threat

when individuals feel at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their social group, which can impair their performance in that domain

merkel cells

specialized sensory receptors receptors responsible for detecting sustained pressure and textures on the skin

meissner’s corpuscles

fine touch and vibration (fingertips)

pacinian corpuscles

deep pressure and high-frequency vibration

ruffini endings

skin stretch and sustained pressure

hair follicle receptors

detect hair movement

free nerve endings

detect mechanical, thermal, and chemical damage

behaviorist theory

language is learned through operant conditioning—reinforcement and punishment

nativist theory

humans have an innate biological capacity for language