questionnaires

• While laboratory experiments are rarely used in sociological research, even by p____, w_____ or s____-c_____ q____ are a research method that is very widely used.

• Questionnaires can be given out by h____ and completed on the s____, s___ out and r___ by p____ or e____, or filled in o____

• While laboratory experiments are rarely used in sociological research, even by positivists, written or self-completion questionnaires are a research method that is very widely used.

• Questionnaires can be given out by hand and completed on the spot, sent out and returned by post or email, or filled in online.

• Questionnaires ask people to provide written answers to p____-s___, written questions.

• what are the two formats of questionnaires?

• Questionnaires ask people to provide written answers to pre-set, written questions.

The two formats of questionnaires are :

1. Closed-ended → Respondents must choose from a limited range of possible answers that the researcher has selected in advance, such as yes/no/don't know. These answers are often pre-coded for ease of analysis.

2. Open-ended - Respondents are free to answer however they wish, in their own words, without any pre-selected choices being offered by the researcher.

practical ✓advantages in using questionnaires

Questionnaires are a very widely used research method in sociology due to their practical strengths:

• They are a q____ and c____ way to gather l___ amounts of q____ data from l___ numbers of people, widely spread g____.

• There is no need to r_____ and t____ i____ - respondents complete the questionnaires themselves.

• Data is usually easy to q___, particularly where p____-c_____ questions are used, and can be c_____-p______ to reveal r____ between v____.

practical ✓advantages in using questionnaires

Questionnaires are a very widely used research method in sociology due to their practical strengths:

• They are a quick and cheap way to gather large amounts of quantitative data from large numbers of people, widely spread geographically.

• There is no need to recruit and train interviewers - respondents complete the questionnaires themselves.

• Data is usually easy to quantify, particularly where pre-coded questions are used, and can be computer-processed to reveal relationships between variables.

practical ✘limitations in using questionnaires

• Data is often limited and superficial - why is this?

• It may be necessary to offer incentives (such as entry into a prize draw) to persuade respondents to complete the questionnaire - why is this bad?

• what is the problem with postal and emailed questionnaires?

• Very low response rates are a major problem. A higher response rate can be obtained by sending f____-u___ questionnaires or by collecting them by hand, but this adds to the c___ and t___.

• ↓

• Non-response may be caused by f____ q____ d____. For example, a questionnaire that uses c____ l____ may only be completed by the well educated.

• Questionnaires are i____. Once it is f____, the researcher is stuck with the questions they have decided to a____ and cannot explore any new areas of i_____ should they come up during the course of the research.

• Because the questionnaire is drawn up in advance, the researcher must already have some knowledge of the subject and a clear hypothesis to test. - what is the problem with this.

• Questionnaires are only s_____ - pictures of r____ at one moment in time, when the respondent answers the questions. They fail to capture the way people's attitudes and behaviour change.

practical ✘limitations in using questionnaires

• Data is often limited and superficial. This is because questionnaires need to be fairly brief - most people are unlikely to complete a long, time-consuming questionnaire.

• It may be necessary to offer incentives (such as entry into a prize draw) to persuade respondents to complete the questionnaire. This adds to the cost.

• With postal and emailed questionnaires, we cannot be sure whether an unreturned questionnaire was ever actually received by the respondent. Also, we carnot be sure that the intended recipient completed the questionnaire and not someone else.

• Very low response rates are a major problem. A higher response rate can be obtained by sending follow-up questionnaires or by collecting them by hand, but this adds to the cost and time.

• ↓

• Non-response may be caused by faulty questionnaire design. For example, a questionnaire that uses complex language may only be completed by the well educated.

• Questionnaires are inflexible. Once it is finalised, the researcher is stuck with the questions they have decided to ask and cannot explore any new areas of interest should they come up during the course of the research.

• Because the questionnaire is drawn up in advance, the researcher must already have some knowledge of the subject and a clear hypothesis to test. This makes it less suitable for investigating unfamiliar topics where the researcher has little idea as to the important issues

• Questionnaires are only snapshots - pictures of reality at one moment in time, when the respondent answers the questions. They fail to capture the way people's attitudes and behaviour change.

what is an theoretical issue/strength/arguement + example

• the sociologist's methodological perspective.

• there are differences in sociological perspectives about how society should be studied

• e.g While positivists favour questionnaires, interpretivists and others are more critical of their use.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

• Positivists take a s_____ a____ and they believe q______-based research achieves the main goals of s_____ s____.

• For positivists, questionnaires produce r_____ f____ that can be g____ to the w___ population.

• They are a r_____, o____ and d_____ method for producing q_____ data, testing h_____ and developing causal l___ of s____ b____.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

• Positivists take a scientific approach and they believe questionnaire-based research achieves the main goals of scientific sociology.

• For positivists, questionnaires produce representative findings that can be generalised to the wider population.

• They are a reliable, objective and detached method for producing quantitative data, testing hypotheses and developing causal laws of social behaviour.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Hypothesis testing

• Positivists model their approach on what? and seek to discover what?

• Questionnaires are attractive to positivists because they enable them to test h____ and identify possible c____-and-e____ relationships between different factors or variables.

• For scientists to test the hypothesis that variable A causes variable B, they must first establish whether there is a what?

• Questionnaires can establish correlations because they produce q_____ data that can be s_____ a_____ to identify relationships between different variables, allowing sociologists to compare p____ in responses and i_____ c_____ d____ For example, by comparing respondents’ answers to questions about o_____ and level of e____, sociologists may identify a p____ suggesting that people from working-class backgrounds are less likely to do what?

• Once the correlation has been established, what can we do?

• In turn, this can be tested with a f_____ q_____. In this way, laws of cause and effect can be discovered, just as in the natural sciences.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Hypothesis testing

• Positivists model their approach on the natural sciences and seek to discover laws of cause and effect.

• Questionnaires are attractive to positivists because they enable them to test hypotheses and identify possible cause-and-effect relationships between different factors or variables.

• For scientists to test the hypothesis that variable A causes variable B, they must first establish whether there is a correlation between the two. (a pattern e.g between social class and educational achievement.)

• Questionnaires can establish correlations because they produce quantitative data that can be statistically analysed to identify relationships between different variables, allowing sociologists to compare patterns in responses and identify consistent differences For example, by comparing respondents’ answers to questions about occupation and level of education, sociologists may identify a pattern suggesting that people from working-class backgrounds are less likely to attend university.

• Once the correlation has been established, we can construct a hypothesis about its possible cause - for example, working-class people are less likely to go to university, because of material deprivation.

• In turn, this can be tested with a further questionnaire. In this way, laws of cause and effect can be discovered, just as in the natural sciences.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Reliability

• Reliability involves replicability- how?

• why is reliability important for positivists?

• If others can repeat the r____ and o____ the same results, we can have more confidence that its findings are t____

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Reliability

• Reliability involves replicability: if another researcher repeats the research using the same method, they should gain the same results (a replica) as the first researcher.

• For positivists, reliability is important because it allows a scientist's findings to be checked and confirmed or falsified by others.

• If others can repeat the research and obtain the same results, we can have more confidence that its findings are true.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Reliability

• Questionnaires are regarded as a reliable method of collecting data - why is this?

• the questionnaire is a s_____ m____ i_____ just like a t____ or p____ g____ in the natural sciences.

• This means one researcher's study can easily be r____ and c____ by another.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Reliability

• Questionnaires are regarded as a reliable method of collecting data.

• This is because, when we repeat someone's research, we can use a questionnaire identical to the original one, so new respondents are asked exactly the same original questions

• the questionnaire is a standardised measuring instrument just like a thermometer or pressure gauge in the natural sciences.

• This means one researcher's study can easily be replicated and checked by another.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Reliability

✓ - this means that if we do find d_____ in the answers that respondents give, we can assume that these are the result of r_____ d______ between the respondents, and not simply the result of d____ questions - since the questions were the same for all respondents

✓ - questionnaires allow us to make comparisons - how?

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Reliability

✓ - this means that if we do find differences in the answers that respondents give, we can assume that these are the result of real differences between the respondents, and not simply the result of different questions - since the questions were the same for all respondents

✓ - questionnaires allow us to make comparisons. By asking the same questions in different times or societies, we can compare the results obtained. If the results differ, we can assume this is because there is a real difference between the societies or times we are comparing

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

• If a method produces representative data, then the findings can be g______ from the sample studied to the w____ population from which the sample is drawn.

• why is representativeness important to positivists?

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

• If a method produces representative data, then the findings can be generalised from the sample studied to the wider population from which the sample is drawn.

• Representativeness is important to positivists because they are macro or structural theorists - they aim to make generalisations about how the wider social structure shapes our behaviour.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

• Sociologists use samples because it is i______ to study whole populations; the aim is usually to select a r_____ sample so findings can be generalised, especially valued by positivists who seek law-like conclusions.

• what are some representative sampling methods?

• what are Non-representative sampling methods and how does this relate interpretivists?

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

• Sociologists use samples because it is impractical to study whole populations; the aim is usually to select a representative sample so findings can be generalised, especially valued by positivists who seek law-like conclusions.

• Representative sampling methods: Using a sampling frame, researchers may use random, quasi-random, stratified random, or quota sampling to ensure the sample reflects the wider research population.

• Non-representative sampling & interpretivists: When no sampling frame exists, methods such as snowball and opportunity sampling are used; interpretivists are less concerned with representativeness and generalisation, prioritising valid understanding of meanings instead.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

Positivists favour questionnaires because they are more likely to yield representative data. There are two main reasons for this:

1.They are l____-s____

Because questionnaires can be distributed how? they can collect information from a l_____ s____ of people.

• As a result, their findings stand a better chance of being truly r_____ of the wider population.

2.They use r_____ samples

• Researchers who use questionnaires tend to use more s____ s___4 techniques designed to obtain a representative sample.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

Positivists favour questionnaires because they are more likely to yield representative data. There are two main reasons for this:

1.They are large-scale

• Because questionnaires can be distributed quickly and cheaply by post or email over wide geographical areas, they can collect information from a large sample of people.

• As a result, their findings stand a better chance of being truly representative of the wider population.

2.They use representative samples

• Researchers who use questionnaires tend to use more sophisticated sampling techniques designed to obtain a representative sample.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

✘- However, representativeness can be undermined by l____ r____ rate, especially if those who do return their questionnaires are d____ in some way from those who don't (for example, better educated)

. If so, this will produce d____ and u____ results, from which no accurate g___ can be made.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Representativeness

✘- However, representativeness can be undermined by low response rate, especially if those who do return their questionnaires are different in some way from those who don't (for example, better educated)

. If so, this will produce distorted and unrepresentative results, from which no accurate generalisations can be made.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Detachment and objectivity

• For positivists, scientific research is o___ (u____) and d_____.

• what must be kept separate from the research? and not be allowed to 'c_____' or affect the subject matter or the research findings in any way.

• Positivists favour questionnaires because they see them as a d_____ and s____ form of research, where the sociologist's p_____ i_____ with their respondents is kept to a m____.

• For example, postal questionnaires are completed at a d____ and involve little or no p_____ c_____ between researchers and respondents. Unlike in an interview, no researcher is p____ to i_____ the answers.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Positivism

Detachment and objectivity

• For positivists, scientific research is objective (unbiased) and detached.

• The scientist's own subjective opinions and values must be kept separate from the research and not be allowed to 'contaminate' or affect the subject matter or the research findings in any way.

• Positivists favour questionnaires because they see them as a detached and scientific form of research, where the sociologist's personal involvement with their respondents is kept to a minimum.

• For example, postal questionnaires are completed at a distance and involve little or no personal contact between researchers and respondents. Unlike in an interview, no researcher is present to influence the answers.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

• Interpretivists seek to discover the m____ that underlie our a_____ and from which we c_____ s____ r____.

• Their main concern is with v_____ - obtaining an a____ or t_____ picture of how a____ c____ and experience social reality.

• For this reason, interpretivists tend to reject the use of questionnaires. - they argue that questionnaires cannot yield valid data about what?.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

• Interpretivists seek to discover the meanings that underlie our actions and from which we construct social reality.

• Their main concern is with validity - obtaining an authentic or truthful picture of how actors construct and experience social reality.

• For this reason, interpretivists tend to reject the use of questionnaires. - they argue that questionnaires cannot yield valid data about the meanings of social actors.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

Detachment

• why do Interpretivists reject the positivist preference for detachment?

• To obtain valid data, they argue, we must use methods that i____ us c____ with the people we research, so that we can gain a s____ understanding of their meanings - ideally, by enabling us to see the world through their e____.

• For interpretivists, questionnaires fail to do this because they are the most detached of all primary methods - _ explain this.

• This can be a serious problem, especially where there are c____ or l____ d____ between researcher and respondent.

• interpretivists argue that the cost of this detachment is i_____ data that fails to give a true picture of the respondent's meanings.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

Detachment

• Interpretivists reject the positivist preference for detachment and objectivity because they believe it fails to produce a valid picture of actors' meanings.

• To obtain valid data, they argue, we must use methods that involve us closely with the people we research, so that we can gain a subjective understanding of their meanings - ideally, by enabling us to see the world through their eyes.

• For interpretivists, questionnaires fail to do this because they are the most detached of all primary methods - the lack of contact between researcher and respondent makes it almost impossible to clarify what the questions mean for the respondent or to check that the researcher has correctly understood the answers given.

• This can be a serious problem, especially where there are cultural or language differences between researcher and respondent.

• interpretivists argue that the cost of this detachment is invalid data that fails to give a true picture of the respondent's meanings.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

Lying, forgetting and trying to impress

• The validity of questionnaire data depends on what?

• Problems of validity are created when respondents l___, f____, do not know or do not u____ (and do not admit that they don't understand).

• For example, in M_____ S_____ (1965) research on the s____ b____ of teenagers, in reply to the question, 'Are you a v____?' one answered, 'No, not yet'. Whether they did not u____, or were simply being m____, the resulting data lacked v___.

• Similarly, respondents may try to p_____ or s______-g_____ the researcher, or impress them by giving 'r____' answers they feel they ought to give, rather than tell the truth.

• It is often impossible to confirm what? For this reason, interpretivists often favour observation instead of questionnaires, -why?

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

Lying, forgetting and trying to impress

• The validity of questionnaire data depends on the willingness and ability of respondents to provide full and accurate answers.

• Problems of validity are created when respondents lie, forget, do not know or do not understand (and do not admit that they don't understand).

• For example, in Michael Schofield's (1965) research on the sexual behaviour of teenagers, in reply to the question, 'Are you a virgin?' one answered, 'No, not yet'. Whether they did not understand, or were simply being mischievous, the resulting data lacked validity.

• Similarly, respondents may try to please or second-guess the researcher, or impress them by giving 'respectable' answers they feel they ought to give, rather than tell the truth.

• It is often impossible to confirm whether respondents are telling the truth or not. For this reason, interpretivists often favour observation instead of questionnaires, since this allows us to see for ourselves what people actually do, rather than what they say they do.

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

Imposing the researcher's meanings

• For interpretivists, it is important that our research methods reveal what?

• In their view, however, q____ are more likely to i____ the r_____ f______ of ideas on the respondent than to reveal the respondent's meanings.

• For example, by choosing in advance which questions to ask, the researcher has already decided what?

theoretical argument in using questionnaires →Interpretivism

Imposing the researcher's meanings

• For interpretivists, it is important that our research methods reveal the meanings of the social actors we are studying.

• In their view, however, questionnaires are more likely to impose the researcher's framework of ideas on the respondent than to reveal the respondent's meanings.

• For example, by choosing in advance which questions to ask, the researcher has already decided what is important and what isn't.

overview

• Closed-ended questions are a kind of s____ where respondents have to t____ and f___ their views into the answers on offer. If they feel some other answer to be important, they have no opportunity to express it.

• Open-ended questions allow respondents to give whatever answer they wish, but when the researcher codes them to produce q____ data, n___-i____ answers may get lumped together.

• As S____ (1997) says, when the r____ c____ are not the r____ c____, 'p____ and b_____' of the data is inevitable.

overview

• Closed-ended questions are a kind of straitjacket where respondents have to try and fit their views into the answers on offer. If they feel some other answer to be important, they have no opportunity to express it.

• Open-ended questions allow respondents to give whatever answer they wish, but when the researcher codes them to produce quantitative data, non-identical answers may get lumped together.

• As Shipman (1997) says, when the researcher's categories are not the respondent's categories, 'pruning and bending' of the data is inevitable.