AP Psych Unit 4

Attribution theory

explains how we interpret and explain the cause of a behavior

Dispositional attributions

assumption that behavior is driven by internal characteristics

Situational attributions

explaining

behavior as a result of external factors

Explanatory Style

A pattern of how people explain good and bad events

Optimistic explanatory style

attributes negative events to external and specific causes and positive events to internal and global characteristics

Pessimistic explanatory style

attributes negative events to internal and global causes and positive events to external and specific causes

Actor/observer bias

the tendency to attribute dispositional explanations of behaviors when we observe other people’s behaviors but attribute situational explanations to ourselves.

Fundamental attribution error

people tend to attribute the behaviors of others to dispositional factors and ignore other explanations (situational

or external)

Self-serving bias

the tendency to see ourselves positively

Locus of Control

an individual's perception of the causes of events in their life.

Internal locus of control

belief that you control your life

External locus of control

belief that outside forces control your life

Person perception

how we form impressions of others when we have limited information

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure increases liking

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Beliefs or expectations influence behavior

Social comparison

Evaluate one’s abilities, opinions, and beliefs by comparing them to others

Upward social comparison

compare to those we perceive as superior

Downward social comparison

compare to those we perceive as inferior

Relative deprivation

Feeling dissatisfaction or resentment because they feel they have less than they deserve after judging one's situation relative to others

Attitude

how we think or feel about something; attitudes shape our perception and behavior

Attitude Formation

a result of direct interactions and personal experiences through socialization and observation; also influenced by reasoning and logic

Implicit attitudes

unconscious beliefs or

biases

Explicit attitudes

a conscious belief or feeling

Just-world phenomenon

the tendency to see the world as fair and believe people get what they deserve based on their behaviors.

Out-group homogeneity bias

people see members of the out-group as more similar to each other than members of their group

In-group bias

reserve positive feelings for other members of the group

Ethnocentrism

judging other cultures based only on the values and characteristics of one’s

own culture

Stereotypes

generalized concepts about groups

Prejudice

an attitude founded on unjustified, usually negative judgements, attitudes, or beliefs

Discrimination

a negative behavior toward members of a group

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to beliefs despite contrary evidence

Cognitive Dissonance

a psychological state that occurs when a person has conflicting beliefs, ideas, or behaviors.

Social influence

how individuals' attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors are affected by others in social situations

Social norms

societal expectations and roles that guide behaviors in social situations

Social roles

patterns of behavior expected of someone in a specific position or context, often influenced by those norms

Individualism

placing a high value on individuals over groups with strong affinity for autonomy, independence, and uniquenesses; equity is a priority

Collectivism

focus on group; individual needs less important than group needs; focus on equality and cooperation

Multiculturalism

coexistence and acceptance of multiple cultural traditions within a society

Normative social influence

the tendency to conform to group norms or behaviors to gain social acceptance and avoid disapproval, even if it means privately disagreeing with the group's actions

Informational social influence

where individuals conform to the behavior or opinions of others because they believe those others possess more accurate information, often leading to a genuine change in beliefs

Persuasion

the process of influencing someone’s beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors through communication and reasoning, without coercion or force

Central route of persuasion

involved reason and logic and an audience highly motivated to think

Peripheral route of persuasion

relies on emotion or other superficial factors (colors, music, celebrities) for an audience not motivated to make well-thought-out decisions

Halo effect

a decision-making shortcut (heuristic) where a superficial impression created in one area influences an opinion of something else.

Foot-in-the-door technique

someone is first asked to agree to a small request, making them more likely to later agree to a larger, related request.

Door-in-the-face technique

a large, unreasonable request is initially made, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request, increasing the likelihood of compliance with the second request.

Conformity

adjusting our thoughts or behavior to match real or perceived group standards

Obedience

the act of following commands, instructions, or orders due

to direct pressure from an authority figure or ruling body

Group polarization

the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination, often amplifying pre-existing opinions and attitudes through group discussion

Groupthink

psychological phenomenon where a group of people make irrational or flawed decisions due to a desire for harmony and conformity

Diffusion of responsibility

individuals feel less personal responsibility to take action or help in a situation when others are present, assuming someone else will intervene

Bystander effect

the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help or intervene in an emergency situation when others are present, compared to when they are alone

Social loafing

- individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when they work alone or are individually accountable

Deindividuation

loss of self-awareness and individual accountability that occurs when people are in a group, often leading to impulsive and sometimes antisocial behaviors.

Social facilitation

tendency for people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others, and conversely, perform more complex tasks worse (social inhibition)

False consensus effect

cognitive bias where people tend to overestimate how much others share their own beliefs, opinions, and behaviors, assuming their views are more common than they actually are.

Social Traps

a situation where individuals or a group pursue short-term, seemingly self-interested actions, leading to long-term, negative consequences for everyone involved

Superordinate goals

shared objectives that require cooperation and collaboration between multiple individuals or groups.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

focuses on understanding and improving human behavior within teams, organizations, and the workplace, encompassing areas like recruitment, training, leadership, performance, and organizational development

Prosocial behavior

voluntary actions intended to benefit another person or group, encompassing acts like helping, sharing, cooperating, and comforting, often driven by empathy and a desire to improve someone else's well-being

Altruism

behavior motivated by the goal of increasing someone else's welfare, even at a potential cost or risk to oneself

Social debt

an implicit, perceived obligation to repay social favors, support, or assistance received from others

Social reciprocity norm

the social norm of responding to an action with a similar or equivalent action, typically rewarding positive actions and punishing negative ones

Social responsibility norm

the belief that individuals have a moral obligation to act in ways that benefit society and contribute to the collective well-being, even when there's no direct personal gain