The USA's involvement in Europe

What were the core beliefs of Western capitalist democracies

Individual liberty protected by limited government; free‑market economy with minimal state intervention; political pluralism and free elections; emphasis on equal opportunity rather than enforced equality; shaped Western aims in post‑war diplomacy

How did capitalist political freedom operate in practice

Citizens chose leaders through competitive elections; multiple parties and free press legitimised governments; political legitimacy rested on electoral consent

What is Marxist theory in brief

Capitalism exploits the proletariat for bourgeois profit; class struggle leads to revolution and a classless society as the end goal

How did Lenin adapt Marxism

Leninism: vanguard party, dictatorship of the proletariat, centralised state control to make Marxism a practical governing system

What were the features of Stalinism and its foreign policy impact

Cult of personality, extreme centralisation, priority on regime survival and security; led to insistence on buffer states and a foreign policy focused on protecting the USSR

Why did ideology intensify East–West rivalry

Both sides believed their system should spread; each viewed the other’s expansion as an existential threat, turning ideological conviction into global competition

What was the Grand Alliance and why was it fragile

USA, UK, USSR united to defeat Nazi Germany; cooperation was pragmatic and temporary—divergent post‑war aims and mutual distrust created fault lines as victory neared

Yalta Conference basics and significance

4–11 February 1945; Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin. Agreed UN, four occupation zones in Germany, Berlin division, territorial adjustments for Poland and Declaration on Liberated Europe; revealed conflicting aims beneath apparent cooperation

East–West objectives at Yalta

Roosevelt/Churchill: collective security via UN, democratic reconstruction, economic institutions. Stalin: Soviet security via spheres of influence, weak Germany, territorial gains from Poland

The Percentages Agreement and its meaning

Informal Churchill‑Stalin deal (Oct 1944) allocating influence in Eastern Europe by percentages (e.g., Romania 90% USSR; Greece 90% UK); example of realpolitik and sphere bargaining

Potsdam Conference context and leadership changes

17 July–1 August 1945; Roosevelt dead (Truman president), Churchill replaced mid‑conference by Attlee; US atomic test occurred just before Potsdam, altering dynamics

Key Potsdam decisions about Germany

Disarmament, demilitarisation, de‑Nazification, decentralisation, restoration of freedoms, Germany as a single economic unit, reparations (USSR to receive own zone + 25% from Western zones)

How did the atomic bomb affect diplomacy at Potsdam

US atomic test gave Truman perceived leverage; Soviets saw it as intimidation (atomic diplomacy), increasing mistrust and hardening positions

Roosevelt’s post‑war vision and misjudgement

Believed international institutions (UN) and cooperation could secure peace and democratic outcomes in Eastern Europe; underestimated Soviet security concerns and was later criticised as naïve

Churchill’s view and strategy

Deep distrust of Stalin; saw Soviet expansion as threat to British interests; sought close Anglo‑American alliance and used spheres of influence to protect imperial interests

Truman’s approach after 1945 

Shifted toward confrontation and containment; believed US economic and military power should be used to prevent Soviet expansion; less trusting than Roosevelt

Stalin’s priorities in Europe

Create a buffer zone of pro‑Soviet states, keep Germany economically weak until it could be secured as communist, maintain Red Army presence and install friendly regimes

Attlee’s stance after Yalta and Potsdam

Saw Stalin as expansionist; wanted US to defend Western zones of Germany; supported Potsdam but worried about lack of long‑term plan and Soviet failure to honour Yalta on Poland

Stalin’s initial motive in Eastern Europe

Security and influence rather than immediate ideological expansion; sought a defensive buffer of satellite states to prevent future invasions

Methods used to establish communist regimes

Coalition tactics with left parties, intimidation of opponents, manipulated elections, arrests, purges and show trials; sometimes used wartime resistance credentials to claim legitimacy

Poland as a testing ground

Lublin Government used as Soviet instrument; Provisional Government of National Unity (June 1945) allowed pluralist façade while communists consolidated power; opponents sidelined or removed

Poland 1946–48 key events and outcomes

Communists merged with socialists (Jan 1947) to dominate; leaders opposing Moscow (e.g., Gomulka) were purged; by 1948 Poland firmly under Soviet influence

Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary routes to control 

• Romania: Red Army occupation + communist popularity

• Bulgaria: gradualism, rigged elections, removal/execution of opponents

• Hungary: alliances, arrests, rigged elections, purges of non‑compliant leaders

Czechoslovakia 1945–48 and the communist takeover

Industrialised with strong communist support; acceptance of Western aid (1947) alarmed Moscow; non‑communist resignations (1948) allowed Gottwald to consolidate power; President Beneš resigned, leaving pro‑Moscow control

Yugoslavia and Tito’s break with Stalin

Tito resisted Soviet domination; conflict over economic and foreign policy led to Yugoslavia’s expulsion from Cominform (1948); survived with US aid—example of independent communist path

Kennan’s Long Telegram main argument 

USSR viewed West as hostile; Soviet policy ideologically driven and expansionist; US should adopt a hard line and pursue containment, ensuring unity among allies and readiness to threaten force

Kennan’s X article and containment doctrine

Public articulation of containment: systematic, patient pressure to prevent Soviet expansion without direct global war; heavily influenced Truman administration

Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech significance

(6 March 1946) Declared an “iron curtain” across Europe; signalled public recognition of East–West division and increased Soviet alarm

Truman Doctrine purpose and motives

(12 March 1947) Public commitment to contain communism; aimed to prevent Soviet aid to Greek communists and protect democracy; also sought to justify US global role and create political/economic dependencies

Marshall Plan aims and mechanics

European Recovery Program (June 1947): large US economic aid to rebuild Europe ($13.5bn over five years to 16 countries), required economic cooperation and some purchases from US suppliers; aimed to stabilise economies and reduce appeal of communism

Why the Soviets opposed the Marshall Plan

Saw it as economic imperialism and a threat to Soviet sphere; ordered Eastern European states to reject aid; response accelerated division of Europe and consolidation of Soviet control

Cominform and the Zhdanov Doctrine

Cominform (Sept 1947) coordinated European communist parties under Moscow; Zhdanov Doctrine framed world as two camps (imperialists led by USA vs democrats led by USSR) and justified consolidation of Soviet influence

How US economic power reshaped foreign policy

Post‑war US dominance enabled use of economic aid and institutions (IMF, World Bank, Marshall Plan) as tools of influence; economic policy became central to containment strategy

Bizonia and the move toward West German recovery

1947 Bizonia (US + UK zones) merged; US policy shifted to support a strong Western German economy as the foundation for Western European recovery and a Western bloc

Currency reform, Berlin blockade and consequences

New currency introduced in Western zones (June 1948) triggered Soviet blockade of Berlin; events crystallised division and led to Western airlift and deeper Cold War confrontation

US debates over a united vs divided Germany

Some US policymakers (e.g., Kennan) feared long‑term burden of a divided Germany; others accepted a Western German recovery to secure US influence and prevent Soviet alignment of a reunified Germany

How to use Yalta and Potsdam in an essay on Cold War origins

Show initial cooperation (Yalta) then diverging aims and interpretations (Poland, spheres), leadership changes and atomic diplomacy (Potsdam) to argue how ideology + security concerns produced the Cold War

Evidence to use for Soviet motives

Red Army occupation, buffer zone strategy, manipulation of elections, Cominform, Zhdanov Doctrine and purges in Eastern Europe demonstrate security and control motives

Evidence to use for US motives

Kennan’s containment, Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, IMF/World Bank creation and support for Western Germany show economic security, anti‑communism and desire to protect markets