AP Psychology Final Review

Psychoanalysis

unconscious conflicts, early childhood experiences, sex and aggression

Behaviorism

observable responses, learning, environment, rewards + punishments

Humanism

you are inherently good, you have free will, you should try to close the gap between your real and ideal self, you deserve unconditional positive regard

Cognitive

thinking, decision making

Biological

brain, body chemistry, genetics

Neuroscience Perspective

perspective that focuses on how the body/brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

Evolutionary Perspective

the perspective that says behavior is influenced by natural selection and the survival of traits that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce in the past

Behavior Genetic Perspective

the perspective that says behavior is influenced by our genes and environment

Psychodynamic Perspective

the perspective that says behavior is influenced by unconscious drives and conflicts

Behavioral Perspective

The perspective that says we learn behavior from observable responses.

Cognitive Perspective

the perspective that focuses on how we encode, process, store and retrieve information

Social Cultural Perspective

the perspective that focuses on how behavior and thinking varies across situations and cultures

Industrial/organizational psychologists

people who study the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Clinical Psychology

branch of psychology that studies, accesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

branch of medicine that deals with psychological disorders

Introspection

the examination/observation of one’s own mental/emotional processes

Positive Psychology

the science and study of life's positive qualities

Hindsight Bias

Believing you could have predicted an outcome after it has happened - “I knew it all along”.

Overconfidence

Overestimating your abilities/knowledge.

False Consensus Bias

Assuming others share our beliefs more than they actually may.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Operational Definition

Clearly defined variables for replication of a study/experiment.

Replication

Repeating studies/experiments.

Case study

In-depth study of one person or a small group. Useful for rare conditions but can’t be generalized.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in real-world settings without interference. Good for real behavior, but lack control over variables.

Population

entire group of interest

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Correlation Coefficient

a number value in between -1 and +1 to indicate how strong two things are correlated together

Illusory Correlation

belief in non-existant correlation

Longitudinal Study

Follows the same group over a long time. Tracks development/change but lacks control over variables.

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares different groups at one time point. Quick, but less accurate for developmental change.

Meta-Analysis

Combines data from multiple studies to find overall trends. Helps clarify findings across different samples/settings.

Experiment

Only method that determines cause and effect directly by manipulating variables and controlling conditions.

Informed Consent

Participants must be told enough to choose whether they want to participate.

Voluntary Participation

No pressure; joining must be optional.

Right to Withdraw

Participants can leave the study at any time, for any reason.

Protection from Harm

Physical or psychological harm must be avoided.

Confidentiality

Information must be kept private; identities protected.

Debriefing

After the study, participants must be told the true purpose (especially if deception was used).

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to focus on information that supports your already existing beliefs and ignore info that contradicts it.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants give answers they think are “acceptable” or “good”.

Self-Serving Bias

Attributing success to yourself and failure to external factors.

Ingroup Bias

Favoring people who belong to your own group.

Outgroup Bias

Viewing those outside your group more negatively.

Experimenter Bias

Unconscious influence by the researcher that affects results.

Id

Operates on the pleasure principle; unconscious and seeks instant gratification.

Ego

Operates on the reality principle; mediates between the desires of the id and restraints of the real world.

Superego

Represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience).

Openness

Creativity and willingness to try new things. (OCEAN)

Conscientiousness

Organization, dependability. (OCEAN)

Extraversion

Sociability, assertiveness. (OCEAN)

Agreeableness

Compassionate, cooperative. (OCEAN)

Neuroticism

Emotional instability, anxiety. (OCEAN)

Self-concept

The image we have of ourselves, based on experiences and feedback.

Self-esteem

The overall evaluation of ourselves, either positive or negative.

External Locus of Control

Believing things that happen in your life are mostly because of luck, other people, or outside factors, not because of your own actions.

Internal Locus of Control

Believing that you control what happens in your life through your own actions and decisions.

Repression

Defense mechanism where you push unacceptable thoughts and feelings out of conscious awareness.

Regression

Defense mechanism where you revert back to an earlier develop stage.

Reaction Formation

Defense mechanism where you act opposite in accordance to what you feel.

Rationalization

Defense mechanism where you try to logicalize your actions.

Displacement

Defense mechanism where you take your emotions out on a weaker/safer target.

Sublimation

Defense mechanism where you redirect unacceptable impulses into more socially acceptable behavior.

Projection

Defense mechanism where you take behavior you don’t like in yourself and find it in other people.

Denial

Defense mechanism where you avoid reality or refuse to acknowledge the existence of something,

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test that has participants express inner feeling and interest with stories about a scene

Permissive Parenting Style

high warmth, allow kids to do whatever they want

Authoritative Parenting Style

high warmth, high expectations

Authoritarian Parenting Style

high expectations, low warmth

Neuroplasticisty

the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life

Secure Attachment

Child gets upset when mother leaves but is comforted when she returns.

Insecure Avoidant

Child ignores and is unaffected by separation and reunion with mother.

Insecure Anxious

Child shows intense stress when mother leaves as well as significant fear of stranger, and rejects contact with mother when she returns.

Insecure Disorganized Attachment

Child shows inconsistent attachment behaviors, confusion, clinging to mother after return but also avoiding contact.

NREM Stage 1

Lightest stage of sleep, theta waves. May experience hypnagogic sensations (falling/floating).

NREM Stage 2

Deeper sleep, characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes.

NREM Stage 3

Deep sleep (delta waves), important for physical restoration.

REM Sleep

Brain is highly active in this sleep, body is paralyzed. Vivid dreaming occurs. Increases in length as night goes on.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.

Night Terrors

Extreme fear and flailing during NREM-3 sleep; not remembered.

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)

Occurs in NREM-3; walking or performing activities while asleep

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

Person acts out dreams due to lack of REM paralysis.

Activation-Synthesis Model

Brain tries to make sense of random neural activity.

Consolidation Theory of Dreams

Dreams help solidify and process memories.

REM Rebound

More REM sleep after being deprived of it.

Psychoactive Drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug.

Physical Dependence

A physiological need for drugs to relieve negative emotions.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activities and speed up body functions. (Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, etc.)

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural neural activity and slow body functions (alcohol).

Hallucinogens

Psychdelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Opiates

Drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety (Morphine and Heroin).

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and spinal cord that processes information and coordinates it throughout the rest of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System

All the nerves outside of the central nervous system, play a key role in transmitting sensory and motor signals.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement.

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like digestion and heart rate,

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for “fight or flight” response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for calming your body down after “fight or flight” known was “rest and digest”.