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Components of attitudes
Affective (emotions)
behavioral
cognitive (thoughts)
Cognitive component of attitude
based on knowledge and beliefs about a person, object, or idea
Affective component of attitude
evaluation based on emotions (not rational, can arise from sensory or aesthetic reaction)
affective component of attitude can arise from this
classical conditioning
classical conditioning
the feeling you have toward an emotional stimulus will transfer to a previously neutral stimulus if the two are repeatedly paired
emotions and attitudes over time
more emotional an attitude → more persistent/stubborn the attitude
attitudes more stubborn when they are
negative
do people overestimate or underestimate the role of emotions in attitude stability?
underestimate
attitude and behavior study
attitude: beliefs about personality
behavior: confronting an instance of prejudice
explicit attitudes
evaluations that we consciously endorse (awareness) and can easily report
implicit attitudes
evaluations that are outside of conscious awareness
inferring attitudes based on stimuli
association w positive stimuli → infer positive attitude
association w negative stimuli → infer negative attitude
LaPlere 1934
expect expressions of anti-Asian prejudice/discrimination against the group but in reality only 1 or 251 establishments displayed discriminatory behaviors. Afterward, a survey found that 90% of these establishments said they would not serve a Chinese customer.
Shows that the prejudice is there but that behavior was inconsistent w attitudes.
motivations behind self-reported attitudes
self-image concern → i dont want this other person to think im racist
core value concern → it is really important for me not to be a racist person
factors that help us predict behavior
strength of the attitude
subjective norms
perceived ability to perform the behavior
more extreme attitudes have what effect on predicting behavior?
more likely to predict behavior
norms
beliefs about how others will view the behavior
if i believe others will see the behavior positively, i am more likely to do it
if i believe others will see the behavior negatively, i am less likely to do it
Tropp et al
correlation between peer norms and personal interest in cross-race relationships
the more likely friends were to want to engage in cross-race friendships, the more likely the individuals were to want to engage in cross-race friendships themselves
ability to perform a behavior
if it is easier, we are more likely to do it
are implicit attitudes fixed or dynamic?
dynamic
are implicit or explicit attitudes more persuasive for an individual?
explicit attitudes more persuasive - often override implicit attitudes
why are implicit attitudes important?
they may influence behavior unconsciously
attitudes and behavior
implicit attitudes → nonverbal behavior
explicit attitudes → verbal behavior
Elaboration Likelihood Model
2 ways persuasive messages can cause attitude change (central route, peripheral route)
central route
based on the quality of the arguments (high elaboration/thought)
peripheral route
based on the factors other than the issue at hand (low elaboration/thought)
central route requires ______ and __________ in order for people to pay attention to the arguments
motivation and ability to pay attention
Motivation to pay attention to an argument depends on…
how relevant to the self an issue is
Speech study
found that when arguments were stronger and more personally relevant, students tended to agree with them more
Distraction study
found that distraction interferes with the systematic processing of an argument. because participants could not pay attention to what they were reading, they were more likely to just agree with what was being said
peripheral factors that influence persuasion
attractiveness of the presenter
length of communication
how they are feeling in the moment
persuasion through the __________ route is more likely to last
central
when motivation or attention is low, ___________ route works best for persuasion
peripheral
Ads and PSAs often use _____ as a persuasion tactic
fear
Fear increases _________ and ________________________
motivation and relevance to the self
heuristic
a mental shortcut that helps us make judgments quickly and efficiently
Emotions may act as __________ by putting us in good/bad moods prior to decision making
heuristics
In a positive mood, people are more likely to…
believe a claim that may or may not be true
incorporate misleading info into their memory of an event
Goal
maintain existing attitude and/or resist adopting a new attitude
Goal pursuit requires _____________
self-control
Polar bear study
limited resources → less self control → higher agreement with policy
attitude inoculation
small attacks on people’s beliefs enable them to counteract subsequent larger attacks and thus resist persuasion
conformity
a change in behavior to more closely align with other’s behavior that happens in response to real or imagined influence from others
informational social influence
aligning our behavior with others’ because we are unsure of the “right” behavior in a situation
normative social influence
aligning our behavior with others’ because we want to be liked or accepted by them
private acceptance
conforming because you genuinely believe that what others are doing/saying is right
public compliance
conforming without believing that what others are doing/saying is right (going with the flow)
accuracy motive relates to which kind of conforming?
informational social influence
the more important the decision is…
the more we will look to others for information
eyewitness study results
people conformed their memories more with policemen than electricians - shows that expertise increases persuasion
normative social influence
aligning our behavior with others’ because we want to be liked or accepted by them
conforming according to self-esteem motive is due to which kind of influence?
normative social influence
why do people seek approval from others
to gain acceptance and avoid rejection, ridicule, or punishment
asch line judgement studies
unambiguous situation, obvious what the correct answer is
shows public compliance - when no one else gave the right answer, the participant was likely to conform to not look dumb
when another person gave the right answer, participant was less likely to comply to the wrong answer because someone else agreed so there is less risk of rejection
external validity - asch line study
suffers because the study takes place in a highly controlled environment - lacks psychological realism
social norms
rules that a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
more likely to comply to normative social when…
the group is important to us
we do not have allies in the group
injunctive norms
behavior we think other people approve or disapprove of
we think we will be rewarded for performing normative behaviors
we think we will be punished when we perform non-normative behavior
descriptive norms
how we think other people actually behave, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved by others
helps us learn which behaviors are effective/useful/adaptive in a context
foot in the door technique
getting people to first agree to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request
effective because it avoids dissonance and demonstrates agreeability
door in the face technique
first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request
second request seems more trivial than initial request, reciprocity
milgrim study - why did people obey?
normative social influence - experimenter would disapprove & no allies present
informational social influence - confusing/crisis situation, the experimenter is an expert
milgrim study - why do people keep obeying?
sticking to the “obey authority” norm
foot in the door: incremental shocks
not feeling responsible for their own behavior because someone else is guiding it
loneliness associated with risk of…
physical decline among older adults
strong social relationships…
improves health and increases longevity
does physical attractiveness matter?
yes - more for men than women
halo effect
we tend to assume that an individual with one positive characteristic also possesses other positive characteristics
“what is beautiful is good” stereotype
we associate attractiveness with positive qualities that have nothing to do with looks
cultural norms and attractive qualities
individualist cultures value those qualities and are more likely to associate it with attractiveness, whereas collectivist cultures will associate qualities associated with collectivism with attractive people
what is most important to men vs women when forced to answer
men - physical attractiveness
women - social status
why do men value physical attractiveness?
cues to fertility
why do women value social status?
compensating for lower status relative to men
similarity and attraction
people who are similar tend to develop romantic relationships with each other
speed dating results
not usually an alignment between what participants thought they wanted and who they actually preferred
with romantic partners, people prefer those who are picky
with platonic partners, people prefer those who like everybody
association between actual similarity and romantic liking
r = 0.005 → indicates that it is not a good predictor of romantic liking
association between perceived similarity and romantic liking
r = 0.75 → indicates that it is a better predictor of romantic liking
which factors do we tend to be most similar with our partners?
cognitive (education level, IQ)
social attitudes (political preferences, religion)
substance use
on which dimensions do we tend to be less similar to our partners?
personality (extraversion)
physical (BMI)
importance of similarity
lower likelihood of conflict
our views/opinions are validated
mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to something leads to a greater liking of that thing (leads to comfort, predictability)
communal relationship norms
feeling responsible for meeting each others’ needs
sharing common identity
give and receive according to who has greater need in the moment
exchange relationship norms
feel little responsibility for the other person
equity - the more you give, the more you get
reciprocity - what you receive is about equal to what you give
theories relating to relationship satisfaction
social exchange theory and equity theory
social exchange theory
weighing the costs and benefits of a relationship to decide what gives us the most value
rewards people might experience in a relationship
social connection, enjoying partner’s personality, expanded social network
costs people might experience in relationships
partner’s annoying habits, compromising on how you spend time/resources
comparisons that take place in social exchange theory
compare your relationship to previous/other people’s relationships, compare your relationship with one person to a relationship with another person
equity theory
the rewards and costs that I experience in a relationship should match the rewards and costs my partner experiences in the relationship
without equity…
one person over-benefits, one person under-benefits
what determines who we become friends with?
similarity AND proximity
interdependence
extent to which one person’s behavior and characteristics influences another’s
selectivity in friendships
friendships are less selective than romantic partnerships in terms of status, intelligence, and physical attractiveness
maintaining friendships
self-disclosure → allows you to build trust
giving and receiving support → deepens connection
inclusion of other in the self
how much do we feel like someone else is close to us/a part of us
companionate love
feelings of intimacy and affection we have for someone that are not accompanied by passion or arousal
passionate love
intense longing we feel for a person accompanied by arousal
Sternberg’s triangular theory of love includes…
intimacy
passion
commitment
intimacy
closeness and connectedness
passion
physical attraction
commitment
dedication over time