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psychological disorder

a disturbance in people's thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes distress or suffering and impairs their daily lives.

medical model

the concept that diseases — in this case, psychological disorders — have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

diathesis-stress model

the concept that genetic predispositions (diathesis) combine with environmental stressors (stress) to influence psychological disorder.

epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).

DSM-5-TR

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

anxiety disorders

a group of disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety and related maladaptive behaviors.

social anxiety disorder

intense fear and avoidance of social situations.

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one may experience a loss of control and panic.

specific phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for 4 weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

trauma- and stressor-related disorders

a group of disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is followed by psychological distress.

depressive disorders

a group of disorders characterized by an enduring sad, empty, or irritable mood, along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person's ability to function.

bipolar disorders

a group of disorders in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)

major depressive disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences five or more symptoms lasting two or more weeks, in the absence of drug use or a medical condition, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.

persistent depressive disorder

a disorder in which people experience a depressed mood on more days than not for at least two years. (Formerly called dysthymia.)

bipolar I disorder

the most severe form, in which people experience a euphoric, talkative, highly energetic, and overly ambitious state that lasts a week or longer.

mania

a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common.

bipolar II disorder

a less severe form of bipolar in which people move between depression and a milder hypomania.

rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking our problems and their causes.

schizophrenia spectrum disorders

a group of disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized or unusual motor behavior, and negative symptoms (such as diminished emotional expression); includes schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder.

psychotic disorders

a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of contact with reality.

delusion

a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.

chronic schizophrenia

(also called process schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten.

acute schizophrenia

(also called reactive schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event, and from which recovery is much more likely.

dissociative disorders

a controversial, rare group of disorders characterized by a disruption of or discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating identities. (Formerly called multiple personality disorder.)

dissociative amnesia

a disorder in which people with intact brains reportedly experience memory gaps; people with dissociative amnesia may report not remembering trauma-related specific events, people, places, or aspects of their identity and life history.

personality disorders

a group of disorders characterized by enduring inner experiences or behavior patterns that differ from someone's cultural norms and expectations, are pervasive and inflexible, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable over time, and cause distress or impairment.

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

feeding and eating disorders

a group of disorders characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. (Feeding disorders typically occur in infants and young children, whereas eating disorders affect people who self-feed.)

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight, and has an inaccurate self-perception; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise.

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person's binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

neurodevelopmental disorders

central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that start in childhood and alter thinking and behavior (as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder).

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity.

deinstitutionalization

the process, begun in the late twentieth century, of moving people with psychological disorders out of institutional facilities.

psychotherapy

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology.

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy.

psychoanalysis (technique)

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences — and the analyst's interpretations of them — released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting of supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in an effort to promote insight.

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).

psychodynamic therapy

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight.

insight therapies

therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses.

person-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within an accepting, genuine, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called client-centered therapy.)

active listening

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and seeks clarification. A feature of Rogers' person-centered therapy.

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Also known as unconditional regard.)

behavior therapy

therapy that uses learning principles to reduce unwanted behaviors.

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imaginary or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.

systematic desensitization

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat specific phobias.

virtual reality exposure therapy

a counterconditioning technique that treats anxiety through creative electronic simulations in which people can safely face specific fears, such as flying, spiders, or public speaking.

aversive conditioning

associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange tokens for privileges or treats.

cognitive therapy

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).

group therapy

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, providing benefits from group interaction.

family therapy

therapy that treats people in the context of their family system.Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

evidence-based practice

clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and client characteristics and preferences.

therapeutic alliance

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem.

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.

antipsychotic drugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorders.

antianxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.

antidepressant drugs

drugs used to treat depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors — SSRIs.)

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severe depression in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized person.

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.

psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue to change behavior.

lobotomy

a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur; in a therapeutic context, the hypnotist attempts to use suggestion to reduce unpleasant physical sensations or emotions.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes following a struggle with etremely challenging circumstances and life crises.

hoarding disorder

a persistent difficulty parting with possessions, regardless of their value.