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Neuron doctrine
The principle that individual atoms are the units and signaling elements of the nervous system (proved by discovery of the synapse)
Localism
specific locations in the brain are responsible for individual functions
Holism
areas of the brain work together to process multiple types of information
Dendrites/post-synaptic neuron
input zone where neurons collect and integrate information, either from the environment or from other cells
Soma
cell body - integration zone where the decision to produce a neural signal is made
Axon
conduction zone where information can be transmitted over great distances
Axon terminals/presynaptic neuron
output zone where the neuron transfers information to other cells
Motor neurons
contract muscles - have long axons that leave the spinal cord and synapse onto muscles to cause movement
Interneurons
communicate with other neurons located in the same or nearby CNS region - short axons because of local connections
Synapse/synaptic cleft
junction between 2 neurons where information is exchanged
Spines
specialized locations for synapses; locations for neuronal transmission
Myelin sheath
membrane that wraps axon like “insulation” - keeps electricity from escaping, is correlated with speed of signals and action potential propagation
Nodes of Ranvier
“breaks” in between segments of myelin with concentrated channels
Glial cells
non-neural cells that act as the support system for neurons (are more numerous than neurons in the brain)
Astrocyte
type of glial cell important for keeping extracellular space at homeostasis so neural signaling can occur and supporting blood brain barrier
Oligodendrocytes
type of glial cell that forms myelin in the CNS by myelinating several parts of several CNS axons
Schwann cells
type of glial cell that forms myelin in the PNS by myelinating one part of a single PNS axon
Microglia
“scavenger cells” that remove debris from sites of injury in the CNS (cell rupture)
Central nervous system (CNS)
made up of the brain & spinal cord and is protected inside bone
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
made up of cranial and spinal nerves; exists entirely outside of bony skull and vertebral column
Afferent division
where sensory information arrives before it is sent to the CNS for processing
Sensory stimuli
stimuli that comes from the environment (ex. touch)
Visceral stimuli
sensory inputs from internal organs; “gut” reactions (ex. stomach ache, thirst, bloating)
Efferent division
sends signal from CNS toward muscles and glands to initiate actions
Somatic nervous system
controls voluntary movement and sends sensory info to our skin, muscles, and joints
Autonomic nervous system
regulates involuntary physiological processes without conscious effort (ex. heart rate, respiration, digestion, arousal)
Sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight; preparing the body to react to danger (ex. heartbeat increasing, dilate pupils)
Parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest; helping the body maintain homeostasis (ex. aids digestion, reducing blood pressure)
Gray matter
soma and dendrites
White matter
myelinated axons
Ventral roots
where motor nerves leave the spinal cord
Dorsal roots
where sensory nerves enter the spinal cord
Meninges
protective layer of tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord
Dual innervation
most organs associated with the autonomic nervous system receive inputs from both the parasympathetic and sympathetic NS
Cerebral cortex
4 lobes of the cortex devoted to integrating information; outermost part of the brain
Frontal lobe
responsible for cognition, working memory, planning, inhibition, and logical reasoning (“human” behaviors)
Parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex (responsible for touch and pain)
Occipital lobe
primary visual cortex
Temporal lobe
is responsible for memory consolidation and is the primary auditory cortex
Dorsal
top
Ventral
bottom
Rostral
front
Caudal
back
Basal ganglia
a collection of nuclei that control voluntary, smooth movement (ie. prevents tremors, shakes, and jerky movements)
Limbic system
group of interconnected structures responsible for interpreting the world emotionally, memory formation, motivated behaviors, and reward/punishment
Hypothalamus
part of the limbic system that regulates motivated functions and controls release of hormones & circadian rhythm
Hippocampus
part of the limbic system essential for memory formation and consolidation
Amygdala
part of the limbic system that activates the sympathetic nervous system by coordinating emotions (fear)
Cingulate cortex
connects the structures of the limbic system and provides input
Midbrain
controls important sensory and motor reflexes, pain information, and non-spinal reflexes
Medulla
part of the midbrain that coordinates basic life functions (ex. cells that allow us to breathe and cardiovascular centers are found here)
Pons
relay station between cortex & cerebellum
Cerebellum
maintains balance and coordinates skeletal motor activities & learned motor skills (ex. walking, riding a bike)
Corpus callosum
long-range neurons that connect the two halves of the brain
Ventricles
areas in the brain with no cells
Cerebral spinal fluid
necessary for buoyancy and protection of the brain - prevents brain from being damaged by its own weight and acts as a shock absorber
Hydrocephalus
condition resulting from a block in cerebral spinal fluid drainage; the brain is compressed along the walls of the skull
Synaptic transmission
Electrical (presynaptic) → chemical (synapse) → electrical (postsynaptic)
Ion channels
proteins embedded in the plasma membrane that provide a path for ions to flow through the membrane
Leak channels
allow ions to leak across the membrane and are always open - set the resting membrane potential
Gated channels
require a trigger to open/close (ex. voltage-gated, ligand-gated)
Ventricular system
set of four interconnected cavities in the brain that produce and circulate cerebral spinal fluid