social change midtermrmrmrmrmr

what are the social sciences

study human society and interaction. the scientific study of social life, social change, and social causes of consequences of human behavior. called “soft science” 

what is a theory (social science)

Abstract proposition “that explain the
social world and make predictions about
the future”

theoretical perspective

basic view of society that:

guides ideas and research. provides context for social behavior and social understanding. helps develope explanations of social patterns and relationships between them, micro, meso, macro level approaches.

core sociological theoretical approaches:

conflict theory

structural functionalism

symbolic interactionalism

conflict theory

Conflict and potential for conflict underlie all social relations

The existing social order reflects the powerful imposing their values and beliefs on
the weaker, leading to inequality
Inequality and injustice are sources of conflict

Social change is desirable, especially if it leads to greater equality

conflict theory

made by Karl marx (1818-1883).

historical study of western Europe.

Focuses on the significance of power and control over resources. Social inequality determined by ownership of material resources.

important concepts of conflict theory

Capitalism – a system in which the
equipment for producing goods (forces of production) is privately owned by the wealthy, and the market system determines how
resources are distributed (i.e. resources go to those who can afford
to pay for them)

division of labor. 

class: Bourgeoisie, proletariat 

class consciousness,

bourgeoisie

Conflict theory explains societal conflict as a struggle between social groups for limited resources, with the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class)

bourgeoisie seeks to maximize profit by keeping labor costs low,

bourgeoisie maintains its dominance through institutions that perpetuate inequality,

proletariat

Conflict theory explains societal conflict as a struggle between social groups for limited resources, with the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class)

proletariat works to sell its labor for survival.

proletariat seeks change to end exploitation

weberian theory

Max Weber (1864– 1920)
The social world is more complex than simple conflict between classes. Bureaucracy, social institutions, help preserve power. Increasing rationality privileges those in power and harms those subject to power.

Bureaucracy

a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.

social institutions

established, enduring systems of social order that fulfill basic societal needs and govern behavior. These systems, such as family, education, religion, government, and the economy, provide structure and stability by shaping societal norms, values, and expectations.

weberian theory put simple

modern society is increasingly organized through rational, efficient systems based on rules and hierarchies.

Weber saw bureaucracy as the most efficient way to organize large institutions

based on a hierarchy, a clear division of labor, formal rules, and merit-based hiring and promotion

these systems operate impersonally and predictably,

conflict theory major developments

Critical race theory -race/racism/power – aim to end racial oppression.

Feminist theory – addresses gender inequality

Queer theory – sexual categorization =
social constructs

critical race theory

argues that racism is embedded in the laws, policies, and institutions of the U.S. race is not a biological reality but a social construct invented to maintain power dynamics and privilege. This social invention has been used to exploit and oppress people of color. advances for racial justice occur only when they align with the interests of powerful white groups. values the lived experiences and narratives of people of color

feminist theory

analyzes and critiques gender inequality in society, advocating for the social, economic, and political equality of the sexes

queer theory

challenges traditional understandings of gender and sexuality by deconstructing norms like heterosexuality and gender binaries

critiques of conflict theory

Ignores the micro-level.
Difficult to test empirically.

Does not explain social cohesion and
cooperation.

Argues that self-interest motivates
behavior - ignores other motivations

structural functionalism facts

Social structure, culture, and social processes work together to ensure that society works smoothly and harmoniously
To understand a social institution, we must understand what need it meets in society

structural functionalism maker

Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1874)

Society is made up of necessary parts, which make up a whole
Collective conscience – we conform to the rules of society because we share beliefs and values, which we internalize.

People adhere to the rules of the group because they need the group to survive.

critiques of structural functionalism

Explains social stability but not social change.
Assumes conflict is harmful

Stable system is not necessarily fair or equitable

symbolic interaction

Focuses on how people give meaning to their everyday experiences and how they define and respond to
events. We act toward people/things based on their meanings. Meanings are created/negotiated through interaction with others. Interaction can modify this socially created meaning.
We learn what to expect and how to build common understandings through symbols (like language) People construct – socially – a meaningful world through interaction. Human agency important. George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, others.

critique of symbolic interaction

Ignores macro-level structures

Hard to study what’s going on in someone’s mind. 

things created from symbolic interaction: 

Dramaturgy (Erving Goffman) –strategic presentation of self. 

Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel)– shared, unconscious knowledge of how to interact in society.

Conversation analysis – study of everyday conversation to discover
how we create/share meaning (related to ethnomethodology)

3 main approaches to sociology 

Conflict Perspective = Distribution of power and resources, how status quo is established and maintained, and who benefits and
who suffers.

Functionalist Perspective = Society is a vast, interconnected network that functions to maintain the stability of the system.

Interactionist Perspective = Studies everyday interactions at the micro level, generalizing to the macro to understand society as a
whole

assumption for all scientific study.

We can gain an understanding of the world through empirical testing.

Empirical knowledge – objectively observed/measured
using our senses (sometimes enhanced with scientific
instruments

studying humans

What kinds of things complicate the scientific
study of human beings.

Influencing the study

Hawthorne effect: the phenomenon where individuals change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

Can’t always control the environment

Replication

Ethical concerns

two classes of research: quantitative

Quantity, counting

Mean = average

Median – midpoint value - what
score appears in the exact middle
of the score distribution

Mode = most commonly occurring
value

Standard bell-shaped curve;
normal distribution, standard
deviation from the mean, etc

two classes of research: qualitative

Quality, observation

Relies on field observation or naturalistic settings

Requires rigorous documentation and presentation of evidence

May sometimes include quantitative measures as well, but may be of less use

qualitative methods examples

Field Studies: Observer/non-participant – data collected through direct observation. 

Participant Observation. 
Ethnography – extended systematic
observation of an entire social setting

interviews

scientific method

Define a topic or problem that can be investigated
scientifically and ethically

Review relevant research/theory to refine topic, define
variables

Create a hypothesis/research question; operationalize
variables

Design the research method – how will data be
gathered?

Select a sample of people or groups from the population

Collect data using appropriate methods

Analyze data

Draw conclusions, present the report

Make suggestions for future research

Variables: Measureable ideas, events, effects that can vary over time, between places, or from
one person to the next

A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions

Independent variable: The variable that comes first and causes the change in another
variable. The behavior of the independent variable is independent of the influence of what Dependent variable: The variable that changes in response to your independent variable you are studying
Control variable: A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable. – We rarely have control variables in sociology

Causal logic

: the relationship between
a condition or variable and a particular
consequence, with one event leading
to the other (i.e. x causes a specific
consequence in y

Correlation:

a relationship between
two variables in which a change in one
coincides with a change in the other
(i.e. a coincidence)

Data validity

the degree to which a
measure or scale truly reflects the
phenomenon under study

Data reliability

the extent to which a
measure produces consistent results

different types of research samples

Representative sample- accurate subset of the larger group.

random sample: each person in a
population has an equal chance of
being selected for the study

convenience sample

snowball sampling

the sociological imagination book

C. Wright Mills

Chapter One: The Promise (1959)
Nowadays people often feel that their private live are a series of traps. 

Aware only of daily life.

Needed: awareness of both
daily life and the history of
society

the sociological imagination concept

Industrialized society complex and confusing

Hard to understand problems and what causes them

Need to develop “the quality of mind essential to grasp
the interplay of individuals and society, of biography
and history, of self and world

Benefits of Developing this Quality
of Mind according to mills

Understanding our personal experiences

Understanding our life chances by understanding
experiences of others like us

Develop understanding of relationship between history
and biography in society

The Sociological Imagination:
Personal Troubles vs. Public Issues

The Sociological Imagination functions in the public
realm

Personal troubles= things important to the individual
are threatened

Public Issues = things that are important to society are
threatened

W.E.B Du Bois : an outsiders perspective

sociology researcher. led team of black researchers. ethnographic research before other sociologists. began in Philadelphia.

made first school of sociology.

The effects of race can’t be experienced rationally; writes subjectively, in a literary style.

Value-neutrality is not possible

Du Bois TERMS TO KNOW

The Color Line: the social, economic, and political barriers that separate racial groups, creating a system of inequality and segregation.

The Veil: a metaphor for the racial and social barrier that separates Black and white people in America

The Double Consciousness: describe the internal conflict of African Americans in a white-dominated society

Troubling the Narrative:
Black Reconstruction in America,
DuBois (1935)

Inverts the narrative of Abraham Lincoln as the “Great Emancipator”

Enslaved workers were already emancipating themselves
“Great Strike” – DuBois’ term
for the half million people who
engaged in mass action by
fleeing the south, forcing
Lincoln to take action

Structural Functionalism – Durkheim

Social structures and institutions have a function in society; they work together to preserve society more or less as they are.

Societies naturally progress from primitive to more advanced, with a higher division of labor as they advance

Biological Determinism

Based on Darwinism and the idea that genetic traits determine human behavior

Foundation of eugenics, Nazism, used to justify differential treatment

Modernization – based on Structural Functionalism

Societies inevitably develop from primitive autocratic to modern free democracies

History shows us that societies do not develop in a linear fashion

Modernization of some societies occurred on the back of others, preventing modernization

conflict theory again

Identify the social group/class in conflict at a particular point in
history (in capitalism, the proletariat and bourgeoisie

Examine class formation (historical development of class over
time). Social group is influenced by history and in turn influences
history

Feudalism shifts to wage labor; crafts and guilds become manufacturing

Classes-in-themselves unaware of common characteristics; “we-feeling”
and sense of shared interests = class consciousness

capitalist and proletariat ways

Surplus value – profit kept by the capitalist; value produced by the
laborer above the cost to produce the object

Exploitation – the system by which capitalists create surplus value,
which includes taking any measures necessary to increase profit, like
reducing wages, reducing safety measures, etc

Historical Materialism

Historical structures shape the present 
As opposed to believing all human society can be explained by universal idea
Material conditions are fundamental and shape ideas and ideologies

how much access to people have to food, water, shelter, transportation,
education, etc 
As opposed to theories that focus internally, on ideas, beliefs, values

Dialectical

All phenomena are interconnected and affect each other

Nature is constantly changing

Linear growth and development not necessarily predestined
transformation involves struggles between opposites or between
forces in conflict” (10) – in other words, conflict is endemic to all
natural phenomena.

swords approach to social change

Conflict theory + dialectical materialism

Social conflict that resulted in social change, based on social class.
Conflict between rising class and contending class.
Examine the cultural/historical context and alliances built with
other groups to leverage opportunity and power.

Borrows from social movement theories and critical
development studies

social movements

Crowd behavior – mobs, riots – NOT social movements

Relative deprivation theories – social movements
emerge when groups perceive their lot to be worse than
others

Resource mobilization – focuses on the needs of social
movements to have access to resources to exist and
thrive.

New social movements of the 1960’s and 1970’s – focus
on collective identity.

Framing – how social issues, movement activities, are
framed so participants understand/internalize them

social movements part 2.

Political Process theory – Movements are structural and cultural, with emphasis on how many people can be swayed to a group’s mission, with a struggle for
attention and alignment

Dynamics of contention – changed focus from movements to relations, looking for causal mechanisms by studying a variety of movements. Identified things
like “category formation” that contributed to cohesion among participants.

problems: Considered causal mechanisms to be independent of historic contex
Researcher’s commitment to objectivity means that they are not
contributing to social change.

Critical Development Studies

Examine social change to guide social and economic
development

commodities definition

an object produced for exchange, which possesses both a use value (its usefulness) and an exchange value (its market price)

contending class meaning

based on the Marxist theory of class struggle, which states that social and political change is driven by the economic conflict between opposing social classes. Specifically, it refers to the fundamental antagonism between the capitalists (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat) in a capitalist society. 

dependency theory

a sociological and economic theory suggesting that developing countries remain poor due to their dependence on wealthy countries

dialectical

a sociological approach that views social change as a process driven by the conflict between opposing forces

Dominant narratives

widely accepted stories or explanations that reinforce the status quo and the interests of a dominant social group, often marginalizing alternative perspectives

dynamics of contention 

examines and compares eighteen contentious episodes drawn from many different parts of the world since the French Revolution, probing them for consequential and widely applicable mechanisms, for example, brokerage, category formation, and elite defection

Framing

the process by which social actors define and shape how an issue or event is understood by others, influencing how it is interpreted, evaluated, and responded to.

general strike

a large-scale, organized work stoppage involving workers from a wide range of industries and occupations within a specific region or country, aiming to achieve broad economic, social, or political objectives

marx’s method

combines dialectical materialism with historical materialism. It involves viewing society as an integrated "totality" of interdependent parts (production, distribution, exchange, consumption) and understanding history through the lens of class struggle, driven by the conflict between owners of the means of production and the working class.

material condition

the physical circumstances of life, such as income, housing, and other tangible resources

materialist

a person who considers material possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values.

modernization theory

suggests that societies develop linearly through stages, moving from traditional to modern structures by embracing industrialization, urbanization, and democratic governance, influenced by economic growth and technological advancement.

political process theory

a framework that explains the emergence, development, and success of social movements by focusing on the external political environment. It posits that the success of a movement depends on the opportunities present in the political system, in addition to the resources and grievances of the group.

relative deprivation theory

the idea that individuals feel discontent or deprived when they perceive a gap between what they have and what they believe they deserve, especially when comparing themselves to others

resource mobilization

the idea that individuals feel discontent or deprived when they perceive a gap between what they have and what they believe they deserve, especially when comparing themselves to others

teaching history common errors

Eurocentrism – Europe as the origin of all things related to
modernity.

Progress narratives - grand narratives of progress toward
modern society that gloss over the systemic violence done to subordinate groups as modern nations emerge in Europe

triplets of systemic violence

evictions, witch hunts, attempted genocide.

evictions: feudalism

Wealthy landowners and poor lower classes are obligated to each other

Wealthy = protection of serfs, protection, land and ”office” or jobs to vassals.

Serfs = tied to the land; plant crops, harvest wood, etc. andpay tribute to the wealthy, who use and redistribute.

Vassals = provide military service to the wealthy

what happened to feudalism

capitalism not a given, proto-capitalism widespread.

challenges fuedalism, gaining capital would allow people to rise up against wealthy.

MOORE.

feudalism was shaped by agrarian nature with struggle for agrarian surplus. 

fuedalism in crisis

Peasants could not be removed from the land

Motivation to produce to survive, not produce to sell
Excess production taken by landlord – their primary way of increasing income.
No excess capital to invest in improving farming.

Farming practices were harmful to the soil

Motivation to produce a lot of offspring to help with farming
Land split into smaller and smaller pieces through inheritance, which
makes it harder to farm.
Wealthy and vassal classes also expanded, putting more demand on the
system

feudalism in crisis options

option 1: improve agriculture productivity

option 2: internal colonization: clearing forested lands

option 3: ubranization.
The weather became colder, triggering more
crop failures. famine in 14-15 century. poor diet = disease spread. 
Plague of 1348 – 1351 killed 25 million people (1/3 of Europe’s population)  =loss of labor = higher wages for peasants and less income for wealthy = class power.
Wealthy turn to local government for help = Cities provide support for resistance, a place to run away from lords, and threaten centuries-old lifestyle by commercializing agriculture

Europe and capitalism 14-15 century:

Landowners demand rent instead of food
Landowners subvert a centuries-old practice of considering land to be part of the “commons”.

Theft – stealing land that was not their own, enriching themselves.

Conventional history = serfs emancipated from serfdom.

Marx = a form of violence perpetuated on serfs, who were stripped of their ability to provide for themselves and were left with the option of selling themselves

primitive accumulation

steal land from peasants.

Leaves peasants without a way to provide for themselves. gave rise to bourgeoise

protection from the state

early capitalists turn to government for help with protection, built ships to be used in trading what they made. gove made commercial enterprise to export items

mercantilism

dominant nations colonize weaker nations. dominate trade with tariffs.maximize export, minimize import.  peasants removes through enclosures, become manufacturing laborer = new working class

witch hunts

targeted economically independent women (widows, healers, midwives)

female sexuality, being organized, having magical powers to harm and if female, using medical or childbirth skills. 

social practices persecuted women for providing contraception, abortion, causing infertillity ect. 

profiting for a torture and killing of women