AP Psychology - Unit 2.1-2.2

Bottom-up processing

External sensory information

Top-down processing

Influence by internal prior expectations

Schemas

Mental frameworks we build-up that help organize and interpret information

Perceptual sets

Expectations for a stimulus that influence how we perceive the world

Context and Cultural Experiences

Environmental factors that affect perception, such as noise levels or cultural differences

Gestalt psychology

We perceive things as a whole rather than different, individual parts

Closure

See incomplete figures as complete by filling in the gaps

Figure and ground

Differentiating objects from their background

Proximity

Objects that are close together are seen as a group

Similarity

Similar objects are perceived as a group

Attention

Involves both sensation and perception, affected by internal and external processes

Selective attention

Focus on specific information while ignoring others

Cocktail party effect

Ability to hear one's name mentioned in a noisy room

Inattention

Missing aspects because we're not paying attention

Change blindness

Failing to notice changes in a scene due to inattention

Inattentional blindness

Ignoring or missing other parts when attention is focused on one part of the visual field

Binocular depth cues

Depth perception relying on visual information from two eyes

Retinal disparity

Slight difference between images projected onto each retina helps us perceive depth

Convergence

Brain merges images from both eyes to create a single, 3-D perception

Monocular depth cues

Allow us to perceive depth even with one eye

Relative clarity

Closer objects appear clearer than those farther away

Relative size

Larger objects are perceived as closer than smaller ones, even if they are the same size

Texture gradient

Surfaces with a detailed texture appear closer, smoother textures seem farther away

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

Interposition

When one object overlaps another, the overlapping object is perceived as closer

Visual perceptual constancies

Helps us maintain a consistent perception of objects even when their images change

Size constancy

We perceive an object as having a constant size even when its distance changes

Shape constancy

We perceive an object as having constant shape even when its angle of view changes

Color constancy

Perceive familiar objects as having consistent color even under varying lighting conditions

Apparent movement

The perception of movement in stationary objects, such as a series of still images displayed rapidly.

Concepts

Building blocks of thought that help us categorize and understand the world

Prototypes

The most ideal/typical example of any given concept

Assimilation

Incorporating new info into existing schemas without changing them

Accommodation

Changing schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution by trying all possible options.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but can lead to errors.

Representative heuristic

Making judgments based on how well something matches a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Basing judgment on the most readily available information.

Decision-making

Influenced by past successful experiences (mental set) and the information presented (priming and framing).

Mental set

Approaching problems in a way that has worked before.

Priming

Exposing an individual to a stimulus that influences their response to a subsequent, often unrelated, stimulus.

Framing

Words that we use, the context, to make an outcome less likely.

Gambler's fallacy

Believing that past events affect the likelihood of future events.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Contributing a behavior due to previously invested resources.

Executive functions

Cognitive processes that allow us to plan, organize, and carry out goal-directed behaviours.

Creativity

Involves generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent thinking.

Novelty

Entertainment in the form of art, music, and movies.

Divergent thinking

Exploring many possible solutions to a problem or situation.

Convergent thinking

Using logic and knowledge to narrow down options to find the known solution or a single correct answer.

Functional fixedness

A barrier to creativity where one struggles to see new uses for an object.