approaches in psychology☑️

origins of psychology

-often referred to as the founder of modern psychology

wilhelm wundt (1879) opened fist ever lab solely dedicated to psychology in leipzig germany, significant in marking the beginning of scientific psychology, seperating it from its philosophical roots. 

-aim was to try to analyse the nature of human consciousness and represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions: introspection; breaking up conscious awareness into the basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations to develop theories about mental processes like language and perception, after reaction to different objects or sounds 

isolating the structure of consciousness this way is called structuralism 

origins of psychology

evaluation

-some of wundt’s methods were systematic and well-controlled; all introspections were recorded in controlled lab environments, ensuring possible EVs were controlled. procedures were standardised so all p’s received the same information and wer tested in the same way.

-some work would be considered unscientific: he relied on p’s set-reporting their mental processes, subjective (influenced by personal perspective). some could’ve hidden some of their thoughts, difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour from such data so some efforts to study the mind would’ve been flawed and wouldn’t meet the criteria of scientific enquiry seen today (no temporal validity).

origins of psychology

the emergence of psychology as a science

-science is a means of acquiring knowledge through systemic and objective investigation with the aim of discovering general laws. what has made psychology the science it is today:

-early 1900s: introspection was questioned as its subjectivity made general laws hard to establish. watson and skinner proposed truly scientific psychology should only study observable and measurable phenomena. for this reason, the behaviourist approach dominated psychology for next 50 years

-1950s: digital revolution gave new generation of psychologists a metaphor for studying the brain (cognitive psychology linked to computer) and allowed them to test predictions about how memory and attention work (MSM) using experiments. cognitive approach ensured study of the mind was a legitimate and highly scientific aspect of the discipline

-1980s: biological approach to scientific psychology to a new level by taking advantage of advances in technology to investigate psychological processes as they happen (eg fMRI and EEGs to study the brain) and study link between genes and behaviour

origins of psychology

the emergence of psychology as a science

evaluation

-modern psychology is scientific - has the same aims of neutral science; to describe, understand, predict, and control behaviour. the learning approaches, cognitive approach and the biological approach rely on scientific methods to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way (evidence psychology is an established science)

-not all approaches use objective methods: the humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach and the psychodynamic approach can be considered pseudoscience.

-thomas kuhn says any science must have a paradigm: a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work within a subject can agree on (psychology doesn’t have this; internal disagreement)

the behaviourist approach 

exploring observable and measurable behaviour to study and explain behaviours of learning - not investigating mental processes of the mind

-rejected introspection; involves vague, immeasurable concepts. so maintained control and objectivity and relied on lab studies

-believe all behaviour is learnt and describe babys brains as ‘blank slate’, written on only by experience. suggests processes that govern learning are the same across species so animals can replace humans as experimental subjects.

-behaviours learnt through interaction environmental stimuli

the two important forms of learning suggested by behaviourists

• classical conditioning

• operant conditioning

the behaviorist approach

classical conditioning and pavlov’s research

-idea that we learn through association; ivan pavolov (1927) conditioned dogs to salivate to sound of a bell after repeatedly presenting at time of meals

1.pavolov rings bell before conditioning, bell ringing has no response (NS)

2.pavlov showed dogs meat (US) making them salivate (UCR)

3.pavlov rings bell while introducing meat, causing salivation (UCR); done multiple times to condition them

4.pavlov only rings bell (CS) which causes dogs to salivate (CR)

(pavolov’s dogs gradually learnt to associate bell with food; showing a neutral stimulus can elicit a new learned response through association, creating a new behaviour is learnt)

classical conditioning: watson and raynor

little albert case study (on behaviourism)

-john watson and rosalie rayner (1920) created a phobia in a 9month old baby in a lab study, who prior- didn’t show a negative response to the white rat (NS). when a metal bar was struck everytime albert went to reach for the rat (UCS + UCR) behind his head, he became fearful of the rat and developed a phobia (CS + CR). he also developed a fear of other white furry objects (eg a santa beard)

classical conditioning

evaluation

-highly conducted experiments (both in labs so EVs were controlled and clear cause-and-effect relationship were developed (watson and raynor demonstrated how phobias are developed)

-real life application: phobia treatment (systematic desensitisation), demonstrates external validity and psychiatric practicality

-ethical considerations: no protection from harm for little albert

-animal research limits generalisability: human behaviours are more complex so limited application and external validity (animal extrapolation / anthropomorphic bias: the extent to which we can use animal studies to understand human behaviour)

learning approach: the behaviourist approach

operant conditioning

-idea that we learn from consequences

-positive reinforcement: receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed (praise from teacher for answering question correctly in class)

-negative reinforcement: avoiding something unpleasant for a positive outcome (to prevent getting a detention, you hand in the essay homework, to avoid being shouted at in class, we dont talk)

-punishment: unpleasant consequence for behaviour (being shouted at by the teacher for talking in class)

positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated, while punishment decreases it

operant conditioning: skinner’s research

B.F. Skinner (1953) conducted an experiment with rats (and pigeons), where they move around a ‘skinner box’ and receive a food pellet (as positive reinforcement) when a certain behaviour is performed, i.e. when they press the lever. skinner found the hungry rats pressed the lever more frequently.

-skinner found they could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus (eg an electric shock). this is negative reinforcement

the behaviorist approach

evaluation: strengths

-well-controlled research: measurement and observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. by breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, EVs were removed allowing a cause-and-effect relationship to be established

counterpoint: behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process by reducing behaviour to such simple components by ignoring human thought as a crucial influence on learning (unlike SLT and the CA) - suggesting learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also essential.

-conditioning principles applied to practical institutions: token economy systems for schools, prisons and psychiatric wards rewarding good behaviour for tokens that swap for privileges - high value approach as widespread application. (study on schizophrenic patients - only 11% needed medication)

the behaviourist approach

evaluation: limitations

sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences: skinner suggests everything we do is ‘the sum totoal of our reinforcement history’ ignoring any possible influence of free will on behaviour (an extreme position that ignores influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour).

-ethical issues for keeping the rats in boxes

social learning theory

assumptions

-people learn new behaviours through observation, imitation and modelling of role models (we learn from the environment)

-suggests learning occurs directly though conditioning (similar to behaviourists (association and consequence)) and indirectly through vicarious learning

social learning theory

vicarious reinforcement

indirectly experienced reinforcement: learner observes someone else’s behaviour and its consequences

imitation occurs if behaviour is seen to be rewarded 

social learning theory

the role of mediational processes

1.attention: the extent to which we notice certain behaviours

2.retention: how well the behaviour is remembered

3.motor reproduction: the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

4.motivation: the will to perform the behaviour, determined by whether it was rewarded or punished

social learning theory

bandura’s research

(1) bandura et al (1961) recorded behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave aggressively (hit with hammer and shout abuse) towards bobo doll - found children behaved more aggressive towards the doll than control children observing a non-aggressive adult

(2) bandua and walters (1963) showed children videos of adults behaving aggressively to bobo doll, where in 1st group the behaviour was praised, 2nd was punished, and 3rd was without consequence. findings: first group was most aggressive, followed by the last, with the second group showing the least aggression

social learning theory

identification

we’re more likely to imitate people we identify with (the role model); imitating a role model is called modelling

-a role model is seen to possess similar characteristics to observer, are attractive or have higher status. may not be physically present, may have important implications for the influence of media on behaviour

social learning theory

evaluation: strengths and 1 counterpoint

comprehensive explanation of learning: recognisese role of mediational processes and cognitive factors (we store information about others’ behaviour and use it to make judgements about when its appropriate to perform them) - however, critisised for under-emphasising biological influences on learning: claims environment determines learning but recent research suggests observational learning may be due to mirror neurons that allow us to empathise with and imitate other people

-applied to various real world behaviours (increasing the approach’s value) as it explains cultural behavioural differences; mediational processes account for how children learn from those around them (including the media) + how norms are transmitted through societies (explains how children come to understand their gender role)

social learning theory

evaluation: limitations and other evaluation

-observational lab studies involving young children are prone to demand characteristics/participant reactivity + suggested that because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, they simply behaved in a way they felt was expected of them - may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

-bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism: we are not merely influenced by our external environment but we also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. this suggests some free will in the way we behave.

the cognitive approach

(direct contrast of the behaviour approach)

-argues mental processes behind behaviour can and should be scientifically studied

-these processes (memory, perception, thinking etc) are private and cant be observed so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about cognitive processes on the basis of behaviour

the cognitive approach

the role of schema

schema are packages of information developed through experience that act as mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information (we have mental representations of everything from what happens at a restaurant to what a typical zombie looks like)

-enable us to process lots of information quickly as a mental shortcut; prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli, however they may also distort our interpretations leading to perceptual errors.

the cognitive approach

theoretical and computer models

-there are overlaps between the two, but theoretical models are abstract and computer models are concrete

-important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages (eg MSM)

-computer model is based on the way a computer functions; assumes programming a computer with instructions would produce similar output to humans (useful in AI development)

the cognitive approach

the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

-the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. (localisation eg broca’s area). with fMRI and PET scans, scientists can systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental process disorders. 

-allowed new technology (computer-generated models to read the brain - brain fingerprinting), can be used to analyse brain patterns of eyewitnesses to determine if theyre lying in court

the cognitive approach

evaluation - strengths

-highly controlled, rigorous, objective and scientific lab methods of study allows researchers to infer cognitive processes at work + the emergence of cognitive neuroscience enabled biology and cognitive psychology to enhance the scientific basis and credibility of the approach

counterpoint: relies of inference rather than direct observation, so is occasionally too abstract and theoretical.

dominant approach in psychology with practical and theoretical application (important contribution to AI and robot development, CBT, the (enhanced) cognitive interview (improved reliability of EWT))

the cognitive approach

evaluation - limitations

machine reductionism weakens the validity of the approach: although there are similarities between the human mind and operations of a thinking machine (computers), the computer analogy is critisised for ignoring influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and information processing (research found to show emotional factors can influence memory (eg anxiety on EWT))

lacks external validity as research studies of mental processes are carried out using artificial stimuli that dont represent everyday stimuli

soft determinism- view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can still exert out free will at times.

the biological approach

key assumptions

suggests everything psychological is at first biological 

belief that the mind lives in the brain meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviours ultimately have a physical basis

merges the mental processes of the mind with the physical brain

the biological approach

neurochemical basis of behaviour

neurochemicals in the brain regulate biological and psychological functioning (imbalance can lead to mental disorder, e.g. dopamine overproduction causes schizophrenia and low serotonin levels causes OCD)

the biological approach

the genetic basis of behaviour

twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis by analysing concordance rates - extent to which monozygotic twins share the same characteristics - if a characteristic is solely genetic we would expect the identical twin to share that same characteristics, where in both cases the environment is assumed to be constant.

the biological approach

genotype and phenotype

genotype is genetic makeup whereas phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics, determined by both genes and the environment. 

-despite having the same genes, the way identical twins express their genes can be different, illustrating that much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).

the biological approach

evolution and behaviour

theory of natural selection: any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival, and therefore reproductive chances, will spread in the gene pool for successive generations.

-eg the long necked giraffe adapted physically in response to its environment, attachment in primates to primary care giver that is adaptive, human memory evolving for advantages.

the biological approach

evaluation - strengths

-practical application: increased understanding of neurochemical processes led to development of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders (antidepressants increase serotonin levels at synapses, can manage depression and live normally)

counterpoint: dont work for everyone and have wide variations in their effectiveness, although found to be more effective than placebos in comparative trials, challenging the biological approach as it suggests brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression

-uses precise and highly objective (reliable) scientific methods of investigation for genetic and biological basis of behaviour, including fMRIs and EEGs to measure psychological and neural processes in ways not open to bias.

the biological approach

evaluation - limitations

biological determinism: sees human behaviour as governed by internal genetic causes over which we have no control, although we see gene expression (phenotype) is heavily influenced by environment - not even identical twins look and think the same.

purely genetic argument becomes problematic (eg could a violent criminal excuse their actions by claiming their behaviour was controlled by a ‘crime gene’), suggests biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating environmental effects.

-critic of natural selection (karl popper) says we can only deduce evolution has taken place as we cannot show its happening other than through fossils.

the psychodynamic approach

the role of the unconscious

sigmund freud suggested the conscious mind is the part of the mind we know about and are aware of but is merely the tip of the iceberg

suggested most of the mind is made of the unconscious - storehouse of biological drives and instincts that have significant influence on behaviour and personality, and contains repressed trauma that can be accessed through dreams or parapraxes.

the psychodynamic approach

the structure of personality

the Id is the primitive unconscious part of our personality; operates on the pleasure principle (it gets what it wants). he suggests only the id is present at birth and throughout the life the Id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs.

the ego works on the reality principle and mediates between the other two parts of the personality. it develops around the ages of 2 and its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the Id and the superego, by employing defence characteristics (see other fc)

the superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage at around 5, and is our internalised moral compass. based on morality principle and represents moral standards of the child’s same-gender parent and punishes ego for wrongdoing through guilt. 

the psychodynamic approach

psychosexual stages

freud claimed child development occurred in five stages - each marked by a problem the child must resolve to successfully progress to the next stage where if any psychosexual conflict is left unresolved, the child will become stuck and fixated and carry certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life.

oedipus + electra complex

based on little hans that claims little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred towards their father (a rival in love). fearing that their father will castrate them, they repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father taking on his gender role and moral values

theory that girls experience penis envy and also feel the same point as above towards their mother (electra complex) - where they give up their desire for their father over time and replace this with a desire for a baby.

-little hans had a fear of horses that freud theorised was displaced in which his fear of his father was transferred onto horses, thus, they were merely a symbolic representations of hans’s real unconscious fear of castration.

the psychodynamic approach

defence mechanisms

unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and the superego - and prevents us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas, which often involve forms of distortion of reality and as a long-term solution, they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable.

the psychodynamic approach

evaluation - strengths and one counterpoint

-psychotherapy to replace physical treatments (psychoanalysis for mental disorder employs a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious, e.g. dream analysis by bringing repressed emotions into the conscious mind so they can be dealt with (eg counselling))

counterpoint: psychotherapy is regarded as inappropriate and even harmful for people experiencing more than mild mental disorders as they may have lost their grip of reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in a way required for psychoanalysis, suggesting this approach and treatment isnt applicable to all

-huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought - used to explain large range e.g. personality development, origin of psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity. also significant in drawing connection between childhood experiences and later development.

the psychodynamic approach

evaluation: limitations

-untestable concepts: karl popper deduced that this approach doesnt meet the requirement for falsification; not open to empirical testing and therefore the possibility of being disproved as many are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them near impossible to test, suggesting freuds theory was pseudoscientific rather than established fact.

-his ideas were based on the subjective study of single individual’s case studies’ like little hans which makes it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour

-psychic determinism critisised because it dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour (eg parapraxes being driven by unconscious forces and has deeper meaning)

the humanistic approach

key assumptions

-claims humans are essentially self-determining with free will, and while we are affected by external and internal influences, we are active agents with the ability to determine our own development, and are motivated to self-actualise 

-people are instrinsically good and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better

-rejects models that attempt to establish general behavhioural principles; believe we’re all unique so psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws (person-centred approach). focuses on the study of humans only so rejects comparative psychology

subjective conscious experience (how we understand and interpret events) is more important than objective reality.

the humanistic approach

maslows hierachy of needs

abraham maslow was interested by what motivates us and proposed a hierarchy of needs: in order to achieve self-actualisation, a number of other deficiencies must be met

-at the bottom is physiological needs (eg food and water), then safety and security, followed by love and belongingness, then self esteem, and only once all these needs have been met can somebody self-actualise

-insert picture

the humanistic approach

self-actualisation

-the innate desire to psychologically grow and achieve full potential.

-humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an innate, essential part of being human; we develop and change to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated.

the humanistic approach

the self, congruence and conditions of worth

carl rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, concept of self worth (the way they see themselves) must be broadly equivalent or congruent with their ideal self (the person they want to be). if theyre too incongruent, self-actualisation wont happen due to negative self-worth that arises from incongruence.

-client-centered approach (counselling) can help clients cope with the problems of every day living, and most worthlessness and low self esteem stems from unconditional positive regard (lack of unconditional love).

-insert image

the humanistic approach

evaluation: strengths

-rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. they advocate holism (idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world contexts)

counterpoint: reductionism is more scientific as ideals of science is experiment, which reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables. relatively few concepts in humanistic psychology that can be broken down into single variables and measured (generally short on empirical evidence to support its claims)

-optimistic: praised for bringing the person back into psychology ands promoting positive image of the human condition. sees all as basically good, free to work towards achievements of their potential and control their lives, offering a refreshing alternative to other approaches (eg psychodynamic saw humans as prisoners of their past and claimed we all lived between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’)

-teenagers who believe in free will have lower chance of experiencing depression

the humanistic approach

evaluation: limitations

culurally-biased as many of the ideas central to it (individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth) are more readily associated with individualist cultures which emphasise the needs of the group and interdependence, and in such countries, the humanistic approach may not be as important. doesnt apply universally - dependent on cultural context

limited application: relatively little impact on psychology compared to other approaches - not comprehensive but a set of loose abstract ideas. although rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and maslows hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace.

comparison of approaches

views on development

-psychodynamic approach presents most coherent developmental theory, tying concepts and processes to specific age-determined psychosexual stages, but little further development once child enters the genital stage in the teen stage.

-cognitive approach contributes to understanding of child development (eg as part of intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schema) with age)

-maturation is an important principle in the biological approach: genetically determined changes in a child’s psychological status influences psychological and behavioural characteristics.

-humanistic psychology regards childhood in terms of unconditional positive regard and sees development of the self as ongoing throughout life.

-the behaviourist approach and social learning theory dont offer theories of developmental stages, but see processes of learning to be present at all ages

comparison of approaches

nature vs nurture

-debate of whether human behaviour is more influenced by inherited biological factors (nature) or environment and experience (nature).

-behaviourists characterise babies as blank slates at birth and suggest all behaviour comes about by learned association, reinforcement, or for slt, observation and imitation (nurture)

-the biological approach argues behaviour is due to genetic blueprint inherited from parents (nature), and its expression (phenotype) is environmental (nurture)

-freud believed behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts but saw relationships with parents as playing a fundamental role in future development, and similarly humanistic psychology regards parents, friends and wider society as having critical impact on a person’s self concept.

-cognitive psychologists recognise many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, but are constantly refined through experience.

comparisons of approaches

reductionist

-refers to belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts (opposing holism: that phenomena are best understood by looking at the interplay and interaction of many different factors).

-behaviourism is reductionist in that it breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus-response that can be tested in labs. social learning theory reduces complex learning to a handful of key processes (imitation, modelling etc) though they recognise how cognitive factors interact with external influences.

-biological approach is reductionist in that it explains human behaviour and psychological states at the level of genes and neurons.

the psychodynamic approach reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts, although the three personalities theory is holistic.

the cognitive approach has machine reductionism by presenting people as information processing machines and ignoring influence of human emotion on behaviour.

-humanistic psychology formulates holistic approach to understanding human behaviour, involving investigating all aspects of the individual (including interactions with others and the wider society)

comparison of approaches

determinism

-proposes all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable.

-the behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control; hard determinism

-the biological approach advocates a form of genetic determinism in the assumption that much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences; hard determinism

-psychic determinism (from the psychodynamic approach) is that unconscious forces that drive our behaviour are the ultimate cause of our behaviour, and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds; hard determinism

-the cognitive approach suggests we choose we are the choosers of our own thoughts and behaviours, yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced; soft determinism

-slt put forward the notion of reciprocal determinism- idea that we are influenced by our environment but also that we exert some influence upon our environment through the behaviours we choose to perform; soft determinism

-humanistic psychology stands alone in assertion that human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development; free will

comparison of approaches

explanation and treatment of psychological disorders

-behaviourist model sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning so inappropriate and destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced. behaviour therapies (e.g systematic desensitisation) aim to condition new more healthy responses, have been applied to successfully treating phobias

-slt has little application but principles of modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours (like agression) may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models.

-freud considered anxiety disorders to be from unconscious conflict and childhood trauma. psychoanalysis has had some success but not appropriate for all as it requires considerable input from patient (time and ability to talk and reflect on emotions)

-cognitive therapy is much more effective and applicable especially when combined with behaviour therapy (CBT for depression) which aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of the maladaptive behaviour.

-humanistic therapy (counselling) based on rogerian philosophy by closing the gap between the self concept and the ideal self, which will increase self-esteem and stimulate personal growth

-biological approach has revolutionised treatment of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain.