Unit 6 - Industrialization & its Effects

Industrial Revolution

A period of rapid growth in the use of machines in manufacturing and production that began in the British textile industry in the mid-1700s

- developments in manufacturing, transportation, and communication transformed Europe's economy from one dependent on agriculture to one dependent on industry

Factors that led to British Industrial Revolution

Agricultural Revolution, labor supply, natural resources, investment capital (money), transportation/geography, and available markets

Mass production

Process of making large quantities of a product quickly and cheaply through the use of machinery and assembly lines

- contrast to previous cottage industry, where goods were produced in small batches in homes or small workshops

Capitalism

An economic system based on private property and private ownership of capital

- individuals owned the means of production (factories, transportation, mills, etc) and profited from them

- created a new social class of wealthy factory owners whose wealth came from business, not inherited land

Steam engine

an engine that uses the expansion or rapid condensation of steam to generate power

- invented by James Watt in 1769

- powered by coal (led to the drastic increase in coal mining and transportation)

- enabled factories to move away from water power (rivers, etc) and could now be located anywhere

Bessemer Process

Method for mass producing steel quickly and cheaply that was patented by Henry Bessemer in 1856

- blasting hot air through melted iron to quickly remove impurities

- steel is more durable and resistant to rust than pure iron

Crystal Palace

Centerpiece of Britain's Great Exhibition in 1851

- Great Exhibition was intended to showcase Britain's industrial strength and displayed many new inventions

- Crystal Palace was a multistory glass and steel structure (like a huge greenhouse) that was the length of three city blocks - symbol of industrial age

Railroads

Networks of iron (later steel) rails on which steam (later electric or diesel) locomotives pulled long trains at "high" speeds.

- first built in England in the 1830s

- carried raw materials to factories and manufactured goods from factories to consumers in cities

- carried people as well, leading to greater mobility and the creation of common culture/national identity

Patents

licenses that give an inventor the exclusive right to make, use, or sell an invention

- allowed inventors to profit from their work

- increase in patents issued by the British government allowed inventors to develop many more new devices

Middle class (in Britain)

New social class created by the Industrial Revolution

- neither peasants nor nobles nor clergy

- merchants, factory or mine managers, bankers, etc.

- wealthier and better educated than peasants but without status and power of nobles/clergy

- pursued higher education, leading to increased literacy, national identity, and global awareness

Industrialization in France

Took place after 1815 after the disruption/violence of FR and Napoleon

- industrialized slower and in a more controlled fashion, so they avoided the social and political problems that industrialization caused in Britain

- focused mainly on high-quality luxury goods like silks and porcelain

Industrialization in German states

Overall slow industrialization due to the economic isolation of the different German states and the wide dispersion of natural resources

- Prussia was one of the first German states to industrialize due to large deposits of coal and iron and eventually became an industrial leader of Europe

- Ruhr Valley became center of iron production

Zollverein

Free trade zone created between the German states in 1834

- ended trade barriers and eliminated taxes on goods traded between German states

- allowed German industry in general to expand rapidly

- early step towards unification of Germany

Irish Potato Famine

Famine in Ireland in the 1840s and 1850s after the potato crop was destroyed by blight

- potatoes were staple crop of Ireland (nutritious and easy to grow in Ireland's poor soil), which had been governed as a British colony since 1801

- Britain did little to help the Irish and still demanded they pay rent (evicting those who could not pay) and export potatoes even when crops failed

- over 1 million died of starvation and disease and over 2 million emigrated to the US, Britain, Canada, or Australia

- worsened political and religious tensions between Britain and Ireland

Emancipation Edict of 1861

Law issued by Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1855-1881) that began gradually abolishing serfdom in Russia and, on paper, allowed ordinary people to own land and participate in government

- since peasants lacked money to buy land and had little education, they tended to stay on their estates and continue working for landowners

- lives changed little

Second Industrial Revolution

Another expansion of manufacturing, transportation, and trade from 1870-1914

- increased development of chemical engineering (plastics, etc), electrical, oil, and steel industries

- mass production of consumer goods, food, and clothing

- popularization of cinema, radio, and leisure activities

Internal combustion engine

an engine that burns fuel inside cylinders within the engine

- ushered in age of vehicles powered by gasoline, diesel oil, and liquid fossil fuels

Manchester

City in England that became one of the world's leading industrial cities during the second industrial revolution

- center of textile production and other consumer goods

- created world's first industrial park in 1898 (area designated exclusively for manufacturing)

Telegraph

A device for rapid, long-distance transmission of messages (using Morse code) over an electric wire

- invented by American Samuel Morse in the 1840s

- first time that humans could transmit information faster than a human or animal could travel

- one of the first practical uses for electricity

Telephone

Patented by Scottish American inventor Alexander Graham Bell in 1876

- as telephone usage grew, it led to the availability of switchboard operator jobs for thousands of young women and contributed to the movement for economic independence

Radio

First developed in the 1890s as an early form of wireless communication

- first voice transmission in the early 1900s

- allowed people to transmit ideas and news across the globe and led to global interconnectedness

Transportation of the Second Industrial Revolution

- Bicycles developed in the 1870s as a cheap and reliable form of transportation

- Steamships developed in the late 1800s, which decreased shipping time and increased mobility of troops and supplies during wartime

- Streetcars became main method of transportation for people in European urban centers

- Airplanes first successfully built by the American Wright brothers in 1903 and eventually featured an internal combustion engine, which led to a multitude of economic and military uses

Monopolies

Corporations that gain complete control of the production and trade of a single good or service.

- limits or controls competition in their industry

Examples of consumerism & home innovations

- department stores became destinations for middle class shoppers to buy many different goods in one location

- refrigerated railroad cars allowed food to be shipped across farther distances

- invention of gramophone allowed people to hear recorded music

- lightbulbs and electricity enabled people to socialize at night

- radiators made homes warmer in the winter

Proletariat

Urban working class

- worked in manufacturing, mining, railroads, etc

- crowded and unsanitary living conditions

- women and children needed to work to financially support families

Bourgeoisie

DIFFERENT CONTEXT THAN FRENCH REVOLUTION

- middle class

- worked in business, law, medicine, banking, etc

- owned homes on the edge of cities (growing suburbs)

- women rarely worked outside of the home

- excess income allowed them to become major consumers of new industrial products

Tenements

Urban apartment buildings that served as housing for poor factory workers (proletariat)

- poorly constructed and overcrowded as thousands moved to cities in short periods of time

- multigenerational or multifamily

- unsanitary and allowed diseases to spread quickly

Class identity

the awareness of, and sense of belonging to, a specific social class

- Europeans increasingly identified with those of similar economic, occupational, or social backgrounds as themselves throughout the 1800s

- might consider members of other classes to be opponents or enemies

Effects of urbanization

- rapid population growth in cities and decreasing rural populations

- cities became centers of government and politics

- urban overcrowding and lack of housing

- spread of contagious diseases like tuberculosis and cholera in crowded tenements

- widespread poverty and increase in crime/prostitution

- poor public infrastructure...lack of running water, no method for sewage disposal away from water sources, etc

Cult of Domesticity

Idealized view of women and the home

- social custom that restricted women to caring for her house

- woman was a tender and self-sacrificing caregiver who provided a shelter for her children and a peaceful refuge for her husband

- standard only for middle class women...working class women needed to balance raising children with working factory jobs

Factory Act of 1833

First legal attempt to protect working children in Britain

- children under 9 years old could not work in a factory or mine

- children between 9-13 years old could only work up to 9 hours a day

- children between 14-18 years old could work up to 12 hours a day

- no child could work between 8:30pm-5:30am

- children were required to receive 2 hours of schooling per day

- weak and largely ineffective...families lied about age of children, factory owners who violated this law went unpunished, and children rarely received their 2 hours of education

Mines Act of 1842

No boy under the age of 10 could be employed in coal mines in Britain

- women and girls were banned from working in mines entirely...work was seen as too difficult and degrading

- women felt threatened by this law and it limited job options for many

Ten Hours Act of 1847

Law passed by Parliament

- children between 13-18 years old as well as women could only work 10 hours/day on weekdays and 8 hours/day on weekends

- children under 13 were banned from working

July Revolution of 1830

Demonstrations and rebellion in reaction to King Charles X's increasingly autocratic and absolutist policies

- 500 citizens and soldiers killed in 3 days

- Charles' distant cousin, Louis-Philippe assumed the throne and reigned as a constitutional monarch

- doubled number of French men with voting access

Greek Independence Movement

Greeks revolted against the Ottoman Empire from 1821-1832

- Ottomans had forced Greeks to serve in the military, pay additional taxes, and had destroyed ancient Greek temples

- Greek nationalist military force gained the support of Britain, France, & Russia (all wanted to weaken Ottomans for various reasons)

- Ottoman Empire recognized Greece as an independent state in 1832

Revolutions of 1848

Liberal and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe following the Congress of Vienna and discontent with monarchs using conservatism to maintain power

- overthrew monarchy in France but led to the rise of Louis-Napoleon aka Napoleon III (nephew of Napoleon) who ruled an authoritarian dictator

- revolutions in Prussia & other German states led to the creation of a constitution, but the king never accepted it and the revolution was crushed

- Revolutions in Austria, Hungary, & Italy also failed

- short-term failures across Europe - "turning point at which history failed to turn" and led to monarchs becoming more conservative

- long-term success?

Tsar Alexander II of Russia

Emperor of Russia from 1855 until his assassination in 1881.

- issued Emancipation Edict in 1861 which officially abolished serfdom but still made it difficult for peasants to obtain land

- supported equality before the law and independent courts

- financed construction of Trans-Siberian Railroad (world's longest)

- modernized military and created first Russian draft

- reforms moved slowly and he ultimately still ruled as an absolute monarch

Tsar Alexander III of Russia

Son of Alexander II who assumed the throne after his assassination

- modernized Russian economy and improved education

- reforms brought changes but Russians still lived in poverty under an oppressive government

Liberalism

Political ideology that emerged from the Enlightenment, French Revolution, & Industrial Revolution

- emphasized civil rights of individual citizens and representative government

- favored social contract theory, religious toleration, and expansion of male suffrage

- popular among property-owning middle classes

Jeremy Bentham

British theorist and philosopher who supported liberalism and proposed utilitarianism

- supported many causes like prison reform, female education, religious freedom, and decriminalization of homosexuality

Utilitarianism

The theory, proposed by Jeremy Bentham in the late 1700s, that government actions are useful only if they promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people

- any action is "right" if it promotes happiness and well-being for those affected, which contradicts Christian teachings about things that are inherently right or wrong

John Stuart Mill

English philosopher and politician who was influenced by Bentham and liberalism

- believed that everyone should seek happiness as long as they did no harm to others

- supported free speech, equal rights for women, and the abolition of slavery

Chartism

19th century British working class reform movement

- wanted voting rights for all men regardless of wealth or property

- petitioned Parliament with the "People's Charter" in 1842

- engaged in violent clashes with police

- unsuccessful but influenced later movements like socialism and Marxism

Socialism

A system in which the government owns and controls the means of production (the ways people gather raw materials and manufacture goods) and use them for the public good

- economy is not governed by supply and demand...government is closely involved in production/distribution of wealth

- proposed as alternative to capitalism

- emphasized collective spirit and solidarity

- popular among working class

- distrusted by both liberals and conservatives

"Utopian" Socialism (Owen/Fourier/St. Simon)

Introduced by French philosopher Henri Saint-Simon in the early 19th century

- wanted to build clean, efficient, safe, and humane factories and workspaces

- later philosophers like Fourier and Owen wanted to build intentional communities whose inhabitants would work cooperatively and govern communally

Karl Marx

German historian, philosopher, and economist who coauthored "The Communist Manifesto" and wrote "Das Kapital"

- early critic of capitalism and creator of Marxism

- predicted that a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead to a "dictatorship of the proletariat", which would be a transitional phase into a classless society

Marx's view of history

All history is an unending story of class struggle between the "haves" and the "have nots"

- different types of societies throughout history have developed different types of government

- technology shaped economics, which eventually shaped politics and culture

Marx's view of his era

Alarmed by the way capitalism caused workers to live in poverty and the middle class to live wealthily

- predicted a class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in which the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie

- a "dictatorship of the proletariat" would be a transitional phase into a classless society in which all property is owned collectively

Communism

Culmination of Karl Marx's theory that a classless society would emerge from the struggle between proletariat and bourgeoise

- property would be owned collectively

- **never actually happens anywhere**

Rosa Luxemburg

radical female German socialist and member of the German communist party

- believed workers should revolt against governments that oppress them

- murdered in the aftermath of WWI by conservative Germans

Anarchism

A political theory that opposes any type of government in any form

- believed that governments do nothing but exploit people and that society would function better without them

- believed that capitalism should be overthrown by force

- prominent in violent underground movements

Mass Politics

Emergence of mass political parties and expansion of political democracy in Western Europe

- increase in voting rights

- coincided with industrialization and the creation of new social classes, who wanted to be able to influence the government in some way

Napoleon III

Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte

- came to power in 1848 after the Revolutions of 1848 and the creation of the Second Republic

- extended voting rights to adult men

- declared himself emperor in 1852 and government became increasingly authoritarian

- overthrown in 1870, making him the last monarch of France

Paris Commune

A brief Parisian movement created after the fall of Napoleon III

- created from socialist and anarchist workers

- fought for reforms in education, welfare, and women's rights

- defeated after bloody fights with police

Temperance movement

campaign to limit or ban the use of alcoholic beverages

- founded and supported by women

- unsuccessful but part of broader attempts at social reform

Sunday School movement

Earliest form of public education in Britain

- created in 1795 to provide education for working class children

- mostly taught by women

- provided education for children who went on to become leaders in scientific fields and other areas

Pankhurst family

Emmeline and her daughters led the Women's Social and Political Union to protest women's suffrage in 1903

- organized huge rallies

- protestors were physically assaulted by police and frequently arrested

- increased awareness of women's suffrage issues and led to women getting the right to vote in 1928

Professional police force & prison system

As crime increased in cities, London created the first centralized police force in the world

- unarmed but their presence reduced the crime rate

Prison reformers in Britain tried to standardize prisons and spread across Europe

- men and women were separated

- prisoners should have access to education and employment for rehabilitation

Education reform in mid-late 1800s

- Swiss reformers believed that poor children should be educated and that learning should involve hands-on activities and field trips

- In Germany, kindergarten (garden of children) was developed

- In France, nonreligious public education became available at no cost, leading literacy rates to rise