Niche
Includes where an organism lives, what + how it eats, and its interactions with other species (role)
Spatial habitat
Physical area inhabited by any particular organism
Biotic factors
Feeding relationships (can be complex involving many other organisms)
Provision of shelter e.g nest sites, presence of parasites
Connected to abiotic factors
Tolerance
How well a species reacts to presence of something in its environment
Obligate anaerobes
Single celled prokaryotes with no tolerance for oxygen
Live in places where oxygen can’t reach- soil, deep water, intestines of animals
Facultative anaerobes
Capable of both anaerobic and aerobic respiration
Example: bakers yeast, uses oxygen to convert sugar to energy but can do anaerobic respiration when it is not present
Obligate aerobes
Require oxygen- if it is greatly reduced (hypoxia) or not present (anoxia), they die
Example: Fish in freshwater streams need oxygen above 3mgL-1
Autotrophs
Organisms that make their own food from inorganic substances
Often referred to as producers
Heterotrophs
Organisms that rely on eating other organisms
Often referred to as consumers
Holozoic nutrition
Way of getting nutrients by ingesting all or part of an organism (ingested, digested, absorbed, then assimilated)
Examples: humans, cats, or dogs
Mixotrophic nutrition
Making food and ingesting nutrients from other organisms (useful if sun is low or food is sparse)
Example: the genus Euglena
Obligate mixotrophs
Need both nutrition systems to survive
Facultative mixotrophs
Can survive on one system, but use the other as a supplement
Saprotrophs
Live in or on non-living organic matter secreting digestive enzymes and absorbing products of digestion
Decomposers
Saprotrophic fungi and bacteria
Role is to break down waste material
Methods used in domain archaea
Photosynthesis (generating energy with sunlight)
Chemosynthesis (generating energy from reactions with organic matter)
Heterotrophic nutrition (obtaining energy through eating other organisms)
Genus Halobacterium
Able to perform a type of photosynthesis without chlorophyll, instead using bacteriorhodopsin
Live in very salty environments (Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake)
Not autotrophs as they receive carbon from other organisms
Chemoautotrophs
Organisms capable of producing own food using chemical reactions without sunlight (chemosynthesis)
Examples:
Ferroplasma acidiphilium living in acidic areas, get energy from oxidising ferrous iron
Archaea in oceans/soils use ammonia for energy, generate nitrogen compounds to be used in plants
Relationship between dentition and diet
Humans part of Hominidae family
Only evidence of extinct species in this family are bones/skulls/teeth/fossil DNA/tools they used
Knowing what a species eats tells us what niche it occupies
Incisors
Used for cutting bite sized pieces of food
Folivores (leaf eaters) and frugivores (fruit eaters) tend to have larger ones
Canines
Sharper, used for ripping or tearing tough materials like meat
Premolars and molars
Used for crushing, slicing, and grinding food into a paste
The pointer and narrower the crowns, the better adapted for meat
The rounder and blunter, better for plant material
Orangutans
Eat mostly fruit (frugivores), sometimes supplemented with insects/egg/honey
Have intimidating canines, despite being herbivores
Gorillas
Eat almost exclusively plant material (folivores) but some occasionally eat ants or termites
Have intimidating canines, despite being herbivores
Chimpanzees
Prefer fruit but also eat plants/meat e.g ants, termites, monkeys, honey, bees, birds, eggs, antelope, warthog
Dentition matches diet
Herbivores
Generally have large incisors, wide premolars/molars
Carnivores
Have sharp pointy teeth, inc. premolars/molars
Disadvantages of examining teeth
They have other purposes like intimidation so can’t always determine diet
Microwear
Small abrasions or removal of teeth surfaces
Help see diet as softer food leave different marks to harder foods, food with grit from soil scratch teeth
Adaptations for eating plants
Aphids have stylets, grasshoppers/caterpillars have mandibles to pierce the plant (and cell wall) if they don’t possess enzymes to break down cellulose
Herbivorous vertebrate adaptations
Specialised back teeth for grinding plant matter
Cows are ruminants- swallow grass then regurgitate it to continue chewing (chewing the cud)
Bacteria and archaea in digestive system to help break down cellulose
Giraffes- long necks/legs to reach acacia leaves, tough tongues resist thorns
Plant adaptations for protection
Thick bark, thorns, spikes
Common nettle (Urtica dioica) has silica hairs filled with chemical irritants which break with contact and causes swelling/stinging
Phytotoxins cause nausea, cardiac problems, hallucinations
Foxgloves produce toxins which make animals sick
Castor beans (Ricinus communis) produce toxic ricin
Adaptations for neutralising plant toxins
Ruminants have microbes that detoxify many plant poisons
Cautious sampling→ animals trying new food don’t eat too much of it
Moose (Alces alces) have proteins in saliva which neutralise tannins
If a mammal isn’t killed by a toxin, the liver neutralises it
Chemical predator adaptations
Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) injects venom when biting prey containing neurotoxins to paralyse prey
Certain species of orb-weaver spiders produce chemicals which mimic sex pheromones of moths to attract prey
Physical predator adaptations
Birds of prey have excellent eyesight to detect prey, owls can see at night
Bats and dolphins use echolocation (send out ultrasonic vibrations and process how they bounce off objects)
Sharks have organs in their heads called ampullae of Lorenzini that detect electromagnetic field (fishes/seals’ nervous system sends off small electricity discharges when swimming)
Vultures have acute sense of smell to help find rotting flesh
Ability to fly/run/swim fast to catch prey
Claws/beaks/teeth to kill prey
Have brain that can rapidly make decisions if risk in catching prey is too great
Behavioural predator adaptations
Ambush predators hide and wait for prey (spiders, anglerfish)
Pack hunting helps bring down large prey (wolves have trust and know who is the leader of the pack, soldier ants use raiding parties)
Pursuit predators rely on speed and endurance to tire out prey (cheetahs, humans- persistence hunting)
Chemical prey adaptations
Produce bad-tasting or poisonous chemicals (Dart frogs produce alkaloid on skin that interferes with heart function)
Physical prey adaptations
Camouflage (moth wings, octopus species change texture/skin cells to mimic surroundings)
Aposematism: bright colours to warn predators (non-venomous king snakes use this and mimic coral snakes)
Warning vocalisations (jays, blackbirds, primates e.g monkeys)
Protective shells (grasshoppers, lobsters, clams, mussels, turtles, tortoises)
Protective spines (porcupines)
Behavioural prey adaptations
Fleeing at sight of predator
Hiding
Forming groups (elephants, wildebeest)
Tree adaptations for light
Position leaves high above competitors- dominate canopy
Canopy→ understorey→ shrub layer→ forest floor
Sturdy trunks and strong supporting branches
Liana adaptations for light
Take root on forest floor and use trees as a scaffold
Seedlings grow towards shade (tree trunks) and climb
The bigger/more tangled they get the more harm done to the tree as there is competition
Epiphytes
Attach roots to tree trunks and use moisture from tree branches/humidity, can survive on little water
Hemi-epiphytes
Example: strangler figs spending early life rooted in tree, stems push down into soil later
Interwining stems and branches can encircle a tree trunk
Shrubs on forest floor
Adapted to absorb wavelength of diffuse sunlight (longer red wavelengths)
Examples: banana, ginger
Herbaceous plants
Don’t produce woody stem e.g bananas, wildflowers, strawberries
Fundamental niche
Potential niche a species could inhabit
Realised niche
The actual niche a species inhabits (due to competition)
Red fox niche
Diet is small mammals/amphibians/insects, can survive in all seasons
Fundamental→ forest edge but over time this has become farmland and has seen competition from coyotes so niche has become narrower
Competitive exclusion
States no two species in a community can occupy the same niche, both populations would decrease and one would eventually outcompete and replace the other
Seen in 1934 experiment by G.F Cause on two types of Paramecium (P.aurelia, P. caudatum)
Interspecific competition
When cultured together, P. caudatum died
Competitive exclusion in natural ecosystems
Hard to see as it has usually already happened (most niches only have one species), if we introduce another than hard to know if other factors are contributing
Example: UK Grey squirrel population growing, red squirrels fading- hard to know whether human activity/disease is responsible or not