CT chap 2 & LogF

appeal to common practice

when the pressure comes from what groups of people do or how they behave

appeal to authority

Asserting a claim is true because a person of authority said it is.

appeal to popularity

Arguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial number of people believe it.

contrary evidence

factual evidence or data that directly opposes a particular claim, thus undermines validity or credibility.

confirming evidence

Selectively seeking out information that supports your point of view

preferring available evidence

relying on evidence that is memorable or striking

dunning-kruger effect

The tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability. Being ignorant of how ignorant you are.

dunning-kruger effect ex

when an inexperienced driver is highly confident they are excellent at driving, despite a lack of experience and a tendency to make mistakes that a more skilled driver would recognize as dangerous.

false-consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

false-consensus effect ex

when a person who loves spicy food assumes everyone else at a party will also enjoy the extremely spicy dishes they prepared, only to find the food goes largely uneaten.

homophily

the tendency to give more credence to a statement that comes from a friend

illusion of truth effect

A phenomenon in which you come to believe that a false claim is actually true simply because it is familiar.

implicit bias

idea to be biased against certain demographics without being aware.

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to words/images increases the liking to them

motivated reasoning

Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion, not to uncover the truth.

motivated reasoning ex

A person who smokes might avoid or ignore scientific studies on the health effects of tobacco to maintain their habit and self-image

peer pressure

pressure to conform comes from peers

philosophical skepticism

very limited knowledge/saying knowledge is impossible

social relativism

truth in what your collective society believes

stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

subjective relativism

the truth depends on what you believe

subjective fallacy

Accepting the notion of subjective relativism or using it to try to support a claim.

partisan tribalism

the tendency for people to gravitate toward other people and news sources that agree with their personal politics

self-centered thinking

Accepting a claim solely on the grounds that it advances, or coincides with, your interests.

hasty generalization

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

hasty generalization ex

My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen and lived until age sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really can't be that bad for you.

slippery slope

A leads to B; B leads to C; C leads to Z…?

slippery slope ex

If we allow the children to choose the movie this time, they are going to expect to be able to choose the school they go to or the doctors they visit.

straw man

claim is distorted and used against the person making an argument

straw man ex

Person 1: I think we should increase benefits for unemployed single mothers during the first year after childbirth because they need sufficient money to provide medical care for their children.

Person 2: So you believe we should give incentives to women to become single mothers and get a free ride from the tax money of hard-working citizens. This is just going to hurt our economy and our society in the long run.

ad hominem

attack of person's character - not relevant to discussion

ad hominem ex

You should vote against the mayor's proposal because he uses bad grammar and chews tobacco.

false dichotomy

false ultimatum with 2 contrasting choices

false dichotomy ex

Either you support this new legislation to give the police more power, or you want society to descend into chaos!

appeal to emotion

manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument

appeal to emotion ex

Your sibling is trying to convince you to let them eat the last piece of the dessert: "Can I have the last piece of cake? You know how much I love it, and it's been a tough day for me. I've had such a bad day, and this cake would just make me feel so much better. You don't want me to be sad, right?"

equivocation

when a word is used multiple ways to create confusion

equivocation ex

Premise 1: Annoying co-workers are a headache.

Premise 2: Painkillers can help you get rid of a headache.

Conclusion: Painkillers can help you get rid of annoying co-workers.

bandwagon appeal

everybody does it, so it's ok.

bandwagon appeal ex

"Everyone is getting the new smartphone as soon as it comes out this weekend. You should get it too."

false analogy

Assuming that because two things are alike in one or more respects, they are necessarily alike in some other respect.

false analogy ex

People who buy stocks are no different from people who bet on horse racing. They both risk their money with little chance of making a big profit.

circular reasoning

A is true because B is true, B is true because A is true

circular reasoning ex

George Bush is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.