Psychology Semester 1 Final Study Guide

Biological approach

Looks at how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics influence behavior.

Behavioral genetics

Studies how genes and heredity influence behavior and psychological traits.

Behavioral approach

Focuses on observable behavior and how it is learned through conditioning.

Cognitive approach

Focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Humanistic approach

Emphasizes free will, self-concept, personal growth, and reaching one's potential.

Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic approach

Focuses on unconscious thoughts, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts (Freud).

Sociocultural approach

Examines how social environments and cultural norms influence behavior.

Evolutionary approach

Explains behavior as adaptations that help with survival and reproduction.

Darwin (Natural Selection)

Traits that increase survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interfering.

Observer effect

People change their behavior because they know they are being watched.

Correlational study

Examines the relationship between two variables (does NOT prove cause and effect).

Independent variable (IV)

The variable the researcher manipulates.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable being measured.

Experimental group

Group that receives the treatment.

Control group

Group that does not receive the treatment.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that affects the results of an experiment.

Hawthorne effect

Participants change behavior because they know they are part of a study.

Correlation coefficient

A number from -1.0 to +1.0 showing the strength and direction of a relationship.

Mean

Average.

Median

Middle number.

Mode

Most frequent number.

Placebo effect

Improvement caused by belief in treatment, not the treatment itself.

Single-blind study

Participants do not know which group they are in.

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

Synapse

The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters travel.

Nervous system

The body's communication system (CNS + PNS).

Reflex arc

Automatic response that bypasses the brain.

Brain regions

Different parts of the brain control different functions.

Brain imaging

Methods used to study the brain (EEG, MRI, fMRI, PET).

Rods

Photoreceptors that detect light/dark; work well in dim light.

Cones

Photoreceptors that detect color and detail.

Sensory localization

Ability to identify where a stimulus is coming from.

Just noticeable difference (JND)

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Peripheral vision

Side vision outside the direct line of sight.

Bottom-up processing

Perception that starts with sensory input.

Top-down processing

Perception influenced by expectations and prior knowledge.

Transduction

Conversion of physical energy into neural signals.

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulus needed to detect something 50% of the time.

Difference threshold

Minimum difference needed to detect change.

Trichromatic theory

Color vision based on red, green, and blue cones.

Opponent-process theory

Color vision controlled by opposing color pairs (red/green, blue/yellow).

Color blindness

Inability to distinguish certain colors due to cone malfunction.

Place theory (hearing)

Pitch is determined by where sound vibrations occur on the cochlea.

Frequency theory

Pitch is determined by how fast nerve impulses fire.

Anatomy of the ear

Outer, middle, and inner ear structures involved in hearing.

Pain

Body's warning system indicating tissue damage.

Depth perception

Ability to see distance and 3D space.

Gestalt principles

Rules the brain uses to organize visual information.

Retinal disparity

Difference between images seen by each eye.

Perceptual constancy

Ability to recognize objects as the same despite changes.

Sensory gating

Brain's ability to filter unnecessary stimuli.

Selective attention

Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others.

Divided attention

Paying attention to multiple tasks at once.

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated stimuli.

Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity after constant exposure to a stimulus.

Somesthetic senses

Body senses like touch, temperature, and pain.

Kinesthetic sense

Awareness of body position and movement.

Vestibular sense

Sense of balance and motion.

Classical conditioning

Learning by association.

UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)

Naturally triggers a response.

UCR (Unconditioned Response)

Natural reaction to UCS.

CR (Conditioned Response)

Learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something to increase behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something to increase behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding something to decrease behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing something to decrease behavior.

Schedules of reinforcement

Patterns of reinforcement delivery.

Little Albert

Experiment showing fear can be classically conditioned.

Thorndike

Law of Effect: behaviors followed by rewards are repeated.

Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning.

Skinner

Studied operant conditioning.

Observational learning

Learning by watching others.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement.

Sleep deprivation

Lack of sleep affecting mood, focus, and health.

Alpha waves

Relaxed, awake.

Beta waves

Alert, awake thinking.

Theta waves

Light sleep.

Delta waves

Deep sleep.

REM sleep

Dreaming stage; rapid eye movement.

NREM sleep

Non-dreaming sleep stages.

Sleep disturbances

Problems like nightmares or sleep apnea.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Dreams

Mental experiences during REM sleep.

Effects on the brain

Drugs alter neurotransmitter activity.

Stimulants

Increase alertness (caffeine, cocaine).

Depressants

Slow nervous system activity (alcohol).

Hallucinogens

Distort perception and reality.

Barbiturates

Depressants that slow brain activity.