migration

What is an economic migrant

A person that moves from one place to another for work opportunities.

How has globalisation changed patterns of demand for labour

Shifts in manufacturing jobs from highly developed , high wage paying economies to less developed lower wage laying economies e.g. EU increased demand for regionalised manufacturing workers

Increase international trades has resulted in TNCS in operating in more than one countries and employed international corporate management

How has rural urban migration been encouraged by globalisation

Rapid industrialisation like china created a high demand for worked so met by rural urban migration

FDI in emerging economies created demand for workers in construction and services driving internal migration

migration has led to increased remittances being sent nationally and internationally

What are pull factors that globalisation has made

Imports and exports increasing the opportunities of jobs as there’s investment in trade

How has globalisation created push factors( out of rural)

Mechanisation of agricultural systems creating loss of jobs

Land grabs by government and agribusiness forcing people out of their homes and jobs

What’s the hukao system

A family registration programme that serves as a domestic passport, preventing mass migration from rural to urban areas

How many formal migrant workers are there in china and where are most of them found in?

229.8 million rural migrant workers in china

70% of migrant workers in chinas eastern areas.

How many of chinas rural migrant workers work in manufacturing or construction industries?

Two thirds of china rural migrant workers

How many of chinas rural migrant rural migrant workers work in large or medium sized cities

Two thirds

What are the pull factors of rural to urban migration?

High paid jobs and better quality of life

What are the push factors of rural to urban migration

Improved agriculture technologies from Chinas openness to wider world, so reduced demand for rural labour - mechanisation.

Extreme poverty - 362 million live on less than $2 a day.

Labour surplus in china as there’s few jobs besides farming so workers look to big cities

Poor quality of life

What are the socio-economic impacts of the hukou system on rural to urban migrants

Most live in buildings schedules for demolition - poor living conditions

Families that move together - children lose education, healthcare and don’t belong to city or village

Split families - husbands leave for work, fathers don’t see children often, visit once or twice a year.

Parents hire private tutors for children.

Children left behind with grandparents in village if both parents leave

What’s a floating population?

Chinese citizens with rural citizens and move to urban cities without being registered to have an urban Hukou. They are denied housing, healthcare, education as a result.

What has created a demand for manufacturing labour in China

The global shift in 1970s

What percentage of the global population live outside their country of birth?

3-4%

What’s Singapore’s historical context of becoming a globalised country

Established as a trading colony of the British empire in 1819, attracting labour from china, India and Malay Archipelago, increasing pop to 100,000

Singapore divided into ethnic areas- European town for Europeans and wealthy Asians, Chinatown for Chinese

Industrialised in 1980s from global shift and became one of the East Asian tiger economies

What rank does Singapore hold for globalised countries according 2015 KOF index of globalisation

5th

What’s the ethics makeup of Singapore population

Chinese- 76.8%

Malay- 13,9%

Indian- 7.9%

Other- 1.4%

How many non-resident(temporary immigrants) work in construction and manufacturing

2/3

How many of Singapore’s population is foreign born

48%

Disadvantages for temporary immigrants in Singapore

If an immigrants is fired, they must leave in 7 days .

Regular medical examination for HIV/AIDS

Can’t marry Singaporeans or any permanent residents without permission from work permit controllers and if permission isn’t received, this may result in repatriation

Female work permit holder that are found to be pregnant from compulsory medical screening ,are subject to repatriation

How are highly skilled immigrant workers treated form low skilled ones?

Encouraged to migrate - Singapore has rebranded itself as a ‘Renaissance city’.

Workers have less restrictive work permits and can apply for permanent residency after two years.

How many skilled non-resident workers are in Singapore and why.

22% of non resident population

1990s policies of recruiting from non traditional source countries(UK,USA,France) so majority of skilled workers come from china and India

How many Singaporeans live abroad

192,300

Why does Japan have low population of migrants

Restrictive immigration laws stop Japan’s farms and factories from hiring foreign labour.

strict qualification requirements and complex rules shits out skilled foreign professionals

Survey by a Japanese newspaper showed that 65% of respondents opposed a more immigration policy

2008 Liberla Democratic Party called to accept 10 million immigrants but most Japanese opposed this and the party lost the election.

Why is the majority of Japanese population opposed to immigration

They believe a homogenous population brings racial unification, harmony and cooperation. Immigrants would disrupt society and increase crime.

What’s Japan’s population like?

Ageing pop and shrinking workforce. Estimated 200,000 immigrants a year for fertility rates to be above replacement levels,

How has Japan improved in terms of immigration and what is its critics

2015 - 790,000 immigrants with 40% from china. Foreign trainee programme expanded to helps with construction for 2020 Tokyo olympics

Latter being criticised for exploiting cheap workforce rather than fulfilling aim of giving skills to developing countries.

wthats the Lee model of migration

Explain migration in terms of push and pull factors and intervening obstacles. It suggest that the decision to migrate is based on a balance of positive and negative factors (push and pull).

What are some factors that affect migration and its patterns

Economic motives like job opportunities

Forced migration of African to America

environmental factors - low lying coasts and rising sea levels from climate change e.g. Kiribati to New Zealand. Environmental refugees.

War/conflict - refugees escaping persecution due to their ethnicity, religious belief. They risk dangerous journeys e,g. 10,000 deaths in Mediterranean Sea between 2011-2015

What theories are there to explain reasons for migration?

Neoclassical economic theory

Dual labour market theory

The new economics of labour migration

Relative deprivation theory

World systems theory.

What the neoclassical economic theory

Explains reasons for migration. The most significant push/pull factors are wage differences, which causes migration flows from low wage to high wage areas

What’s the dual labour market theory

Explains reason for migration. Pull factors in developed countries attract migrant workers to fill low skilled jobs because home population don’t want to do this work

What The new economics labour migration

Explains a reason for migration. Migration flows and patterns can’t be explained solely at the level of individual workers and the push and pull factors that cause migration; it is more complex and decisions to migrate is a collective decision made by families. E,g. A household in source country may improve living conditions by using remittances sent by family abroad

what’s the relative deprivation theory

Awareness of income differences between neighbours in a source community is an important factor in migration. Successful migrants can afford better schooling for children and better homes. This encourages them to move abroad.

What’s the world systems theory

Explains a reason for migration. Trade between countries causes economic decline in some so people move to successful countries. After decolonisation, former colonies economically depend on former colonial superpowers which may encourage migration along trading routes. Free trade may encourage people to stay home if they can earn higher wages from new production processes.

How many of the worlds population in developed countries are experiencing ageing populations according to World Bank and IMF

Half of the worlds population in 2015

What does economic theory suggest how maximum efficiency can be reached?

Deregulated financial markets(removing gov control)

Open borders for workers

Minimise wage inflation

What’s cultural heterogeneity?

Society that contains diverse cultural elements like different ethnicities, languages, religions and values.

What are costs of immigration for developed countries?

Traffic congestion

Increased population density,

Higher tax spending on public services e.g. healthcare, education, housing

Increase in labour surplus which could depress or stagnate wages, which reduces standard of living

Community groups live separately rather than adapting host country’s culture. Poses a challenge to national identity and sovereignty

What type of market does EU have

A single market based on free movement of goods, capital, services and people between its 28 member states.

What is the Schengen Agreement made by EU

Treaty that lead to creating Europes Schengen Area- a zone where internal border between member states are abolished. This allows free and unrestricted movements of people, goods, services and capital.

What are some benefits to the Schengen Area?

Easier trading as trucks don’t need to stop for paperwork so reduces transit times and costs

Reduces costs as less spent on guard spend and border infrastructure so increased public sector savings

Boosts intra-European tourism , which benefits rail networks and hotels.

No passport checks at borders.

Stronger external borders

How many live in Schengen Area?

420 million

How many EU migrants are there out of all migrants within EU countries

They account for 35% of total migrant stock

Why have some EU countries imposed control on some of their borders?

Countries like Denmark and France imposed controls on borders from increased migration Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan and in the aftermath of Paris and Brussels terrorist attacks.

Case study in for for Mexico Us border

Between 1900-1920, 24 mill arrived from open door policy of the time

Migration restrictions introduced so harder to obtain US green card

47 % of non Us born residents are Mexicans

What are the Costs for Mexico for migration from Mexico to US

Large scale depopulation of villages - Santa Ines a village lost 2/3 of population from emigration

Shortage of young economically active people

Lots of women struggle to find marriage partners

Old and very young are left behind

Migration break up families

What are the benefits for Mexico of Migration from Mexico to US

$6 billion in remittances sent back to Mexico from US - create a better living standard for those left behind

Less competition for jobs and housing in Mexico

What are the costs for USA from the migration of Mexicans to US

Unskilled workers find it harder to get a job as they want a higher wage than Mexican migrants

Wages are kept low affecting American workers

Increased cultural and racial tension

undocumented migration straining economy e.g. $4.2 billion spent on US medico border security in 2020

What are the benefits for USA of migration of Mexicans to USA

Cheap loan our for firms so higher profits

Mexicans do low skilled work that Americans don’t want to do like factory work or fruit picking

Culture and food popular in California and National Taco day

More competition for jobs and housing in USA benefitting landlords and firms but not for Americans

Mexican immigrants contribute 4% to USs GDP

More strain on public services like education and healthcare

How do New Zealand and Australia admit immigrants based on their skill set that they need

Using a point based system - admits immigrants that have the skill set that the country needs

Immigrants must prove that they can support themselves financially for a period of time, until they contribute country enough to receive support

Immigrants from HDE have a better chance

EU Schengen Agreement means unskilled migrants can move to other EU countries freely so outside immigrants are out advantaged.

Why do some counties have little control over their borders

Greed has long coastline which is surrounded by thousand of islands

Conflicts reduces gov control over its country

What factors affect rate of assimilation of international migrants

Is the country is already multicultural, assimilation increases

Interracial marriages, sharing cultures and social mixing - Cardiff Bay is Wales oldest multi ethnic community

Historical polices enforce segregation e.g. South Africa from apartheid

Differences in religion reduce assimilation rates as migrants beliefs contradict values and tradition of the country’s

Rise of far right nationalist groups

Diversity rates lessens over time - 77% of residents living in Uk for more than 30 years identify as having an UK identity compared to 10% for recent arrivals

What evidences shows what people think of immigration benefiting or not benefiting UK

2013 British Social Attitudes Survey found that 77% of respondents believed that immigration showed be reduced by a lot or a little

2010 survey found that 72% of UK public supported migrant doctors and nurses coming to the Uk to meet healthcare demands

What’s a nation state

A political entity that has sovereignty over its territory and authority to govern without outside interference and recognition from other countries.

Compare background info on Singapore and Iceland

Iceland - larger territory of 103,000km3, smaller population of 330,000

Singapore - smaller territory of 720km3 and population of 5.5 million

Compare How have Singapore and Iceland evolved in a globalising world?

Singapore has become the 4th largest financial centre, founding principles are multiculturalism and secularism. 48% foreign born. 50% speak Mandarin, 32% English, 12% Malay, 3% Tamil

Iceland - Nation language, Icelandic ,hasn’t changed since 870 AD. Homogenous population - new names are decided by Icelandic Naming Comitee, patryonymic names are based on fathers first name.

Ukraine/Russian contested borders

Ukraines

Expletive share strong cultural ethnic linguistic connection with Russia. This is partially why there’s dispute between Ukraine and Russia over Crimea and eastern Ukraine.

Crimea was apart of Russia until in 1954 it became part of Ukraine. Ukraine gained independence from USSR in 1991

Russia annexed (took over) Crimea. Crimea is a strategic area of Black Sea with vast reserves of oil and gas.

Annexation of Crimea occurred because the Ukrainian president at the time was forced out by protests.

How is China and Taiwan an example of contested border

1949- China governed by Republic of China (ROC) under Nationalist Party (NP)

No loses civil war to Chinese communist party and RIC retreated to Taiwan

Communist founded People’s Republic of China (PRC) on mainland.

Both gov claim to be the legitimate China

How do Taiwanese perceive their country?

Has its own government, passport, elections and military so people consider in as a separate country.

How is Taiwan viewed internationally

Not recognises as a sovereign state. Countries view PRC as the only government of China

How does the Peoples Republic of China view Taiwan

PRC claims Taiwan is their 23 province, not a separate country as PRC believe they’re the only gov of China.

What factors have prevented Taiwan from being recognises as a sovereign country?

PRC threatened to use military force against any formal declaration by Taiwan of national independence

No political agreements and both sides maintain opposing claims noted in civil war

ROC and PRC believe they’re the only gov of China.

What does nationalism mean

Political ideology that emphasises the loyalty and devotion of a group of people to their nation and often defined by a common culture, language, history or territory

How was nationalism in 19th century allow development of empires

Nationalism motivates imperial expansion of a nation by creating a sense of pride , superiority and destiny among citizens as well as a desire to spread values and civilisation to other parts of the world.

How did colonialism though the British Empirespread British nationalism

Spreading Christianity through missionary movements to the empires colonies.

India - caste system exaggerated, where only a few were taught English in English built schools, made small population identify with British

What’s the wind of change

Historical process of creating the new nation states that were British colonies becoming independent. 17 African countries achieved independence in 1960

How did nationalism in India allow it to gain independence?

Indian National Congress was founded in 1855 for emerging nationalist feeling

This Congress launches ‘Quit India’ led by Ghanaian, peaceful protest wanting British to leave India.

Independence gained in 1947

1947-1948 partition of India lead to hundreds of thousand being killed in widespread violence

Timeline of independence for Sudan

1998 - UK and Egypt conquered Sudan taking control

1899-1956 - colonial period. Sudan rules as 2 Sudans. British separated Muslim and Arabic speaking North from the multi religious multi ethnic and multilingual south

Divide and Conquer polic slowed economic growth of South because British believed South wasn’t ready to open up to the modern world

British created social hierarchy in which British placed northern people in positions of power. Created distrust and conflict between Sudanese

mid-1950s - tensions and mistrust between Sudanese lead to large scale conflict

Early 1970s - civil war died down and South was given more self governance

1983 - civil war again between north gov, and south rebels

1978- Oil discovered in south

1999- Sudan exported its first barrels

July 2011 - South voted for independence in referendum and became the Republic of South Sudan.

What was the outcome of independence of South Sudan

Conflicts between 60 ethnic groups and a civil war in 2013 , displacing 2.2 million people

Why did decolonisation lead to higher rates of migration to developed countries

More conflicts, poor governances and economic struggles after decolonisation and independence. Economic booms in developed countries in 1960 introduced strong pull factors.

How did WW 1 and 2 affect immigration in UK

After WW2, there was a shortage of worker.Visa restriction didn’t apply to British Commonwealth so in 1945 London has 500,000 migrants from Caribbean.

NHS lacked trained doctors , lead to 750,000 Pakistanis and millions of Indians as medical schools in India use sample textbooks as British medical schools

Why were many migrants keen to move to UK after WW2

Population of ex British colonies spoke English and an affinity with British values

Education in British colonies promoted British history and culture

What are tax havens

Country that offers wealthy individuals, businesses minimal or no tax in a secure confidential environment.

Examples of low tax regime states

Ireland - corporate tax rates of 12.5% compared to UK with 19%. This attracted £180 billion of FDI from US

Luxembourg - 40,000 TNCs locating here.

Cayman Islands- 0% personal tax rates. 2020 × 116,996 companies registered on the island

What are advantages of tax havens

Increase economic growth of economies and IGOs

Taxing TNCs in multiple countries seems unfair so tax havens offer a centralised tax centre

Tax havens develop quickly and recover from recessions even quicker

Deregulation of capital markets has enabled growth of tax havens and other low tax environments

Firms and people retain most profits which be reinvested

Privacy - strict secrecy laws of tax havens so hides firms and people from scrutiny, potential creditors or legal disputes

Tax havens have access to international markets that may not be available elsewhere

What are the disadvantages of tax havens

Loss of gov revenue especially high tax ones so cuts in public services

only accessible to wealthy and large firms that exploit loopholes like tax havens. Widens gap between rich and poor fuels inequality

Strict secrecy can facilitate illegal activities like tax evasion and money laundering

Criminal charges and fines if business or people are associated with these

What evidence shows income inequality

Oxfam found 10 richest men owned the wealth of half of the worlds population in 2021.

What are the consequences of growing income inequality

Lower incomes means poorer health, more people buy processed foods with high calorie but low nutrient content.

Political instability- rejection of rich elite which threatens economic stability

Less trust in others so les happy

Cycle of poverty

How does Ecuador and Bolivia provide an alternative economic model

Established new constitutions based on an idea called Buen Vivir meaning to live well in a community with a healthy environment. Goes against capitalism which promotes individual rights to own sell keep and have. But buen vivir subjugates rights of a person to those of a the larger community and to nature. It argues that humans are not owners of the Earth and its resources , only stewards. buen vivir promotes collaborative consumption and sharing economy.

How does Bolivia’s policies promote Buen vivir

Nationalisation of oil and resources ensures review go to gov. And not private owners m TNCs and shareholds

Low energy promotion by reduction in resource use and economic growth has been consistent and rapid

Subsidies allow cost reduction and ensures poorer citizens can afford food

Imports reduced to promote Bolivia products

What are the impacts of Bolivian policies

Inequality reduced from 61.6 in 2000 to 40.9 in 2021

Import substitution increase economic growth by 3,1%

Bolbuas GDP grown double the rate for Latin America since 2006

GDP per person remains on of the lowest in South America at 3800 compared to Uruguay 21,677

Nations budgets rely on global oil and gas prices

What’s the purpose of UN

One place wheee the the worlds nations can gather together, discuss common problems and find shared solutions.

How was UN formed

Established by the victors of the Second World War in October 1945 and became the first post war IGO. It first had 51 member states but grew to 193 after decolonisation and independence of other countries.

How are members formed?

States are made members by the decision of the General Assembly when the Security Council makes a recommendation.

What are UNs aims?

To maintain international peace and security

Functions in managing global environmental, socioeconomic and political problems

Promotes the principles of human rights and equal rights for all through its commitment to economic and social development

It has a role in global governance through fostering cooperation and dialogue among nations

What are the sustainable development goals (SDG)?

17 interconnected global goals set by UN in 2015 to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure peace and prosperity by 2030

What UN bodies are working towards fulfilling the SDGs?

UN Development Programme(UNDP) - published HDI to compare levels of poverty, education, life expectancy and other factors

Food and Agricultural Organisation- FAO remotes agricultural development and food security

UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) made in 1946 to help European children in WW2 but expanded to provide aid worldwide

World Heakth organisation - WHO focuses on international health issues

UN population fund , resources to combat HIV, largest source if funding for reproductive health and family planning services

World Food Programme - WFP provides food aid for famines , natural disaster, conflict

Office of UN High commissioner for refugees UNHCR, protects the rights of refugees, asylum seekers and stateless people

UN environment programme UNEP gloval environment agenda by assessing trends developing strategies and management of environment.

What evidence shows how the UN bodies have made improvements in the world

WHO feeds 90 million people a year in 80 countries

FAO promotes sustainable agriculture by advocating the adoption of climate smart agricultural practices

UN population fund - 10 million receiving reproductive care crisis affected areas in 2023

WFP helped 124 million in 2024 and works in 120 countries

What is UN Security Council role

Responsible for keeping international peace and security and resolving conflicts that may threaten that peace. Permanent members can approve changes to UN charter and can recommend or veto any security council resolution including admission of any new member states

What members are there in Security Coucnil of UN and how are they elected

5 permanent member of Security council which were victors of WW2 - UK, France, Russia, USA, China. 10 other members decided by General Assembly for 2 year terms

How has the permanent members of UN affected its role in marinating peace

Tensions between US and Soviet Union during Cold War affected security

US vetoed a draft resolution, condemning Israeli settlement in the West Bank

China and Russia vetoed a resolution condemning the state of Syria

What are economic sanctions

Restrictions on trade , travel, access to financial assets impose by national gov on another gov, individual or organisation to compel or prevent actions

What are trade embargo’s

Gov imposed bans or restriction on commerce with a specific country to enter political pressures protest human rights abuses or respond to security threats by cutting off trade in certain goods or all goods,

What ways have UN intervened to maintain peace and security

Military intervention through peacekeeping operating to prevent fighting

Authorise economic sanctions to reduce a country’s ability to trade.

How has UN intervened in Iran

2006 trade embargo on Iran by Security Council. Banned supply of nuclear related materials and tech and freezing assets of individuals and companies related to the programme

.

Why did UN impose a trade embargo on Iran

It was believed they weee using uranium to build nuclear weapons but Iran insisted that they were working to develop civilian nuclear power.

How did Iran respond to trade embargos on them by UN

Iran didn’t respond to embargo so sanctions were extended until 2010 including arms embargo, extended assets freeze on involved individuals and companies.

2016 Iran agreed to stop enriching uranium in exchange for removal of sanctions

2018 - US pukled out of scheme and Iran fell into recession lost value in its currency, saw inflated and drove out many investments and investors

What’s a failed state

A political entity that has lost or never had the ability to perform the basic functions of a sovereign government