a&p II exam 1

What is the mechanism of direction communication

go through gap junctions, adjacent cells interconnected

What is the mechanism of direction communication

through extracellular fluid

What is the mechanism of autocrine communication

through extracellular fluid

What is the mechanism of endocrine communication

through the bloodstream, hormones

What is the mechanism of synaptic communication

across synapses

Which organs’ primary function is hormone secretion

hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland

What is the function of the hypothalamus

smooth muscle contraction

What is the function of the pituitary gland

ADH: water absorption, OXT: labor contractions

What is the function of the thyroid hormone

metabolic rate, calcium ion levels

What is the function of the adrenal glands

fight or flight (resists stress)

What is the function of the pancreas

regulate glucose

What is the function of the pineal gland

melatonin production

What is the function of the parathyroid glands

regulate calcium ion levels

Which organs’ secondary function is hormone secretion

heart, thymus, digestive tract, kidneys, gonads

What is the function of the heart in the endocrine system

regulates blood volume

What is the function of the thymus in the endocrine system

immune response

What is the function of the digestive tract in the endocrine system

glucose metabolism

What is the function of the kidneys in the endocrine system

calcium absorption, secrete renin

What is the function of the gonads in the endocrine system

affect growth, and sex characteristics

What are the two possible receptor locations of hormone’s target cells

plasma membrane, or cytoplasm

Characteristics of the receptor in the plasma membrane

water soluble do not pass, a G-protein will help the hormone get from the first messenger to the second

Characteristics of the receptor in the cytoplasm and nucleus

affect the DNA transcription rate, change the synthesis of an enzyme, lipid soluble

Characterics of the receptor in the thyroid hormones in the cytoplasm and nucleus

bind to mitochondria to increase metabolism and ATP production, lipid soluble

How does the hypothalamus integrate the nervous and endocrine systems

1. Synthesize 2 hormones from the posterior pituitary (OXT, ADH)
2. 2. Secrete regulatory hormones
3. 3. Stimulate endocrine cells

What kind of hormones does the hypothalamus generate

regulatory hormones

What is the hypophyseal portal system and its main purpose

portal system for the hypothalamus to shorten the distance hormones have to travel to cause quicker changes

How many hormones come from each lobe of the pituitary gland

7 from anterior, 2 from posterior

What do all pituitary hormones have in common

all use cAMP as a second messenger

What is the glucose sparing method

growth hormone: breakdown of fats into blood to generate ATP w/ those fats. All occurring in adipose tissue

What is the function of ADH

helps kidneys retain water

What are a couple examples of a negative feedback system in the endocrine system

GH: GHRN, GHIH (same with prolactin), PTH brings calcium levels up, calcitonin brings them down

What connects the left and right lobes of the thyroid

the isthmus

What is the general process of thyroid hormone production and storage

1. Iodine ions from diet to the thyroid gland
2. 2. Enzymes convert iodine to T3 and T4
3. 3. They are stored in the thyroglobulin
4. 4. Follicle cells remove thyroglobulin with endocytosis
5. 5. Thyroglobulin breaks down and amino acids synthesize more
6. 6. T3 and T4 diffuse into the bloodstream gradually

What are the effects of thyroid hormones in peripheral tissues

raised body temp, increase sympathetic sensitivity, remain stable during changes in O2 and CO2 levels, stimulate RBC formation and oxygen delivery

What is the function of the adrenal gland

stimulate fight or flight responses

Explain the layers of the adrenal gland

capsule, cortex, medulla (inside the cortex there is the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciulata, and zona reticularis)

What are the two regions of the pancreas

exocrine pancreas (99%), endocrine pancreas (1%)

What is inside the endocrine pancreas

alpha cells (2) secrete glucagon when blood sugar is low, beta cells (2) secrete insulin when blood sugar is high

What is the function of the pineal gland

produce melatonin

What is an antagonistic interaction and an example

opposing effects, the net result if the balance between hormones (ex. PTH and calcitonin, insulin and glucagon)

What is an additive effect interaction and an example

synergistic, the effects add to each other (ex. Glucose-sparing enhances action of GH)

What is a permissive interaction and an example

one hormone must be present for another to be in effect (ex. Thyroid hormones and gluticosteriods)

What is an integrative interaction and an example

different but complementary affect hormones (ex. Calcitriol and PTH levels)

What does the RAAS system do

increase in fluid and storage intake

What are the primary hormones that regulate growth

insulin, PTH, calcitriol, calcitonin, thyroid hormones, reproductive hormones, GH

What are the 3 phases of stress

alarm, resistance, exhaustion

Differentiate between hyperglycemia, glaucoma, and polyuria

hyperglycemia is abnormally high glucose levels, glaucoma is glucose present in urine, excessive urine production

Differentiate between diabetes type 1 and diabetes type 2

type 1 is inadequate insulin production and effects 5-10% of population

type 2 is insulin resistance and caused by overeating with 85%-90%

Differentiate Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic nephropathy

diabetic retinopathy: partial or complete blindness, increased risk of heart attack, diabetic nephropathy: can lead to kidney failure, and damage in limbs

What is acromegaly

overproduction of GH, eventually bones stop growing up and start growing out

What is infantile hypothyroidism

thyroid hormone deficiency

What is goiter (thyroid)

enlarged thyroid gland caused by intake of salt

What is addison’s disease

too many corcoiods causes pigment changes and melanocytes

What is cushing’s disease

to many glucosteroids, adipose tissues accumulate at base of neck and cheeks

What are the functions of blood

transport O2, CO2, nutrients, hormones, and waste. Regulate pH, prevent fluid loss during injury, defend against pathogens, stabilize body temp

What are the 2 general components of blood

plasma, formed elements (cells and fragments) (RBS, WBC, platelets)

How much blood fo males and females have

M: 5-6 L, F: 4-5 L, differences in body size

What is whole blood and what are some of its properties

blood removed from the body, 5x more vicious than water, slight alkaline (pH 7.4)

What % of blood is plasma

55%

What % of hematocrit is in blood for males and females

M: 47%, F: 42%, differences in testosterone levels

What is the composition of plasma

92% water, 7% plasma proteins, 1% other solutes

Differentiate between plasma and interstitial fluid

plasma has 5x high protein concentration, interstitial fluid has more CO2

What is the function of plasma proteins

prevent leaking in bloodstream

Where do 90% of plasma proteins come from

the liver

Differentiate between albumins, globulins, and fibrogen

albumins: osmotic pressure, globulins: antibodies, and bind ions, fibrinogen: blood clotting

What are 3 types of plasma solutes

electrolytes, organic nutrients, organic wastes

What are examples of electrolytes in plasma

Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl

What are examples of organic nutrients in plasma

lipids, carbs, amino acids

What are examples of organic wastes in plasma

urea, uric acid, creatine

What is the production of formed elements called and where does it occur

hematopoiesis, red bone marrow

What stem cells are produced by hemocytoblasts

lymphoid stem cells, myeloid stem cells

Differentiate between lymphoid stem cells and myeloid stem cells

lymphoid stem cells produce lymphocytes and most migrate to lymphoid tissues, myeloid stem cells give rise to all types of formed elements other than lymphocytes

Explain the process of lymphocyte development

lymphoid stem cells to lymphoblast to lymphocyte

Explain the process of band cell (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) development

myeloid stem cells to monoblasts and myeloblasts to band cells

Explain the process of platelets development

myeloid stem cells to megakaryocytes to platelets

Explain the process of red blood cell development

myeloid stem cells to proerythroblasts to reticulocyte to red blood cell

What are some colony stimulating factors in formed elements

hormones released by lymphocytes during an immune response, stimulate blood formation

What are cells in the second stage after myeloid stem cells called

progenitor cells

What is the process between the second stage and third state in myeloid stem cells called

erythroblast stages

What is the function of EPO

release in response to low O2 levels (hypoxia)

What are some conditioned related to EPO

anemia, decreased blood flow to kidneys, damage to respiratory surface of the lungs

What is hematology

the study of blood, tissues from blood, and blood disorders

What is in complete blood count

RBC, WBC, erythrocyte indices, hematocrit, and platelet count

What is a differential blood count

identifies types and numbers of each WBC present

How many RBC are in the human body

5 to 6 billion

Do red blood cells have a nucleus

no (anucleate)

How many peptide chains does hemoglobin have

4 (2 alpha, 2 beta)

What is iron + ion called

oxyhemoglobin

What is hemoglobin + no oxygen called

deoxyhemoglobin

How are RBC recycled

they are engulfed by macrophages every 120 days and new blood forms (blood formation called erythropoiesis)

What are red blood cells called when they reject their nucleus

reticulocytes

What are the functions of macrophages

engulf red blood cells, recycle hemoglobin

What is the process of hemoglobin recycling

heme to biliverdin to bilirubin into bloodstream

What does the liver do to bilirubin

binds to albumin to give bile a brown color

What does the large intestine do to bilirubin

convert it to urobilins and sterolins

What does the kidney do to bilirubin

excrete hemoglobins to give urine a yellow color

What is agglutination

clumping together incompatible blood

When is a Rh negative dangerous

when the mom is Rh neg and the baby is Rh positive, and this is her second pregnancy (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

What happens to babies affected by hemolytic disease of the newborn

need a blood transfusion, jaundice, anemia, or death

How can hemolytic disease of the newborn be prevented

RhoGAM 26 to 28 weeks pregnant to give the mother antibodies for the baby