Module 11 psych, infancy and childhood

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior

ex. not affected by experiences

__ sets the course for development while _adjusts it

maturation (nature) and experiences (nurture)

How do brains develop?

• birth

growth spurt of neural networks with an excess of neurons

• ages 3-6

rapid frontal lobe growth with continued growth into adolescence and beyond

• early childhood

critical period for skills such as language and vision

• throughout life

learning changes brain tissue

Pruning 

removing unnecessary or unstimulated neurons

ex. when you are young you, have the capacity to learn every language but will eventually lose this ability after being unexposed

Why do our brains weigh more now than we were younger if we have less neurons?

because of dendritic arborization

Dendritic arborization

the process through which neurons mature, form more dendrites and extend dendritic communication

sh. dendrites “branch out”

How can our environment impact brain development?

impoverished environments can stunt brain development while enriched environments can stimulate brain development

How does motor development occur?

occurs through guidance of genes and environment and is largely universal in sequence but not in timing

What are the five main cognitive processes?

• reasoning

• planning

• decision making

• memory

• language

Who was Jean Piaget?

the father of cognitive developmental psychology and proponent of the idea that children engage in active thinking

How do children’s brains develop?

through a series of universal, irreversible stages from simple reflexes to adult abstract reasoning 

Schemas 

concepts or frameworks that help you interpret or make sense of the world

Assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas (understandings)

ex. calling a zebra simply a horse with stripes

Accomidation

adapting current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information

ex. making new book fit on your bookshelf

What are the four main stages of cognitive development?

• sensorimotor

• preoperational

• concrete operational

• formal operational

Sensorimotor stage

from birth to two years, infants know the world in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activity

hallmark: lack object permeance

Object permeance

awareness that things continue to exist even though they aren’t perceived 

Preoperational stage

from 2 to 6 years, child learns to use language but does not have operations of logic 

hallmark: lack of conservation

Conservation

properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in form or shape

Egocentrism

children have difficulty perceiving things from another point of view

Curse of knowledge 

overestimating the extent to which others share our perspective 

Theory of mind

involves the ability to read the mental state of others

ex. those who do not have theory of mind may generalize and not comprehend how others can feel differently from themselves

Concrete operational stage

from 7 to 11 years, children can think logically about concrete events

hallmark: literal thinking 

Literal thinking

involves difficulty with abstract thinking

Formal operational stage

from 12 to adulthood, children are no longer limited to concrete reasoning and can think abstractly

hallmark: personal fable and imaginary audience 

Personal fable

I am special and always right

Imaginary audience

people are always watching and interested in me

Lev Vygotsky

psychologist that focused on children’s interactions with the social environment

How can parents help facilitate a child’s higher level of thinking?

by mentoring children and offering clues and hints they can provide a temporary scaffold

Autism spectrum disorder

a disorder where a child struggles in social interactions and with cognitive abilities resulting in rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

ex. children with ASD have an impaired theory of mind

What are some of ASD’s biological factors

• genetic influences

• abnormal brain development

• prenatal maternal infection

• childhood MMR

Extreme male brain

when there are higher levels of prenatal testosterone, the risk is greater for child to develop ASD

Attachment

emotional tie with another person or primary caregiver

Stranger anxiety

when children show fear or stress around someone they are not familiar or comfortable with

How do children form attachments?

due to the parent’s responsiveness 

ex. does not simply meet biological needs

Which type of parents do we become more easily attached to?

those who are soft and warm

Strange situation experiments

developed by psychologist Mary Ainsworth, these experiments put children in a new or strange environment and showed whether children are securely or insecurely attached 

Does our early attachment have an effect on later adult relationships?

yes, and on our level of comfort with affection and intimacy

Temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Basic trust

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy 

ex. develops in securely attached children 

Insecure anxious attachment

people constantly crave acceptance and attention but remain alert to signs of rejection

ex. clingy

Insecure avoidant

people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies

Parenting styles reflect what?

varying degrees of control 

Authoritative parents

are warmly concerned, set rules but allow exceptions, and tend to have children with the highest self-esteem and social competence

Permissive parents

are unrestraining and tend to have children who are more aggressive and immature

Authoritarian parents

are coercive and tend to have children with less social skills and self-esteem