AP PSYCHOLOGY BOE WORDS

BOE WORDS

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after learning outcome, that one would have foreseen it
* "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon"
* ex: taking test and saying "I knew that was the ans." after knowing right answer

Operational definition

Statement of the exact procedures/measures used in a research study
* clear set of instructions that allow for replication of study (like recipe directions)

Case study

Used to examine 1 individual./group in depth in hope of revealing thigs true of all of us (descriptive technique)
* looking back in time to find person's sleep patterns

Naturalistic observation

Observing/recording behavior in naturally occurring situations/environments without trying to manipulate and control the situation
* potential drawback: Hawthorne effect (ppl. act diff. when being watched)
* ex: observing human laughter patterns

Survey

Used for gaining self-reported attitudes/behaviors of group (usually questions representative/random sample)
* best used for large group of ppl.
* watch out for wording effect (how things worded in survey)

Experiment

A research method in which investigator manipulates 1or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior/mental process
* includes independent and dependent variable

Control group

The group not exposed to the treatment
* serves as comparison for evaluating treatment

Experimental group

The group exposed to treatment/1 version of independent variable in experiment

Population

All those in a group being studied/described
* "all"

Random sample

Sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal participation chance
* ex: drawing names from hat at random
* "chosen by chance"

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance
* minimizes preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
* ex: flipping coin to put ppl. into diff. groups

Double-Blind procedure

Both groups (ppl administrating experiment and participants) cannot know if given placebo or treatment
* can change results if they know

Placebo

Looks same as treatment, but has no effect (inert/nonconsequential)
* placebo effect: participant thinks they are doing better with inert substance

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
* what is being changed

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
* outcome of change

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result has not occurred by chance
* have to repeat procedure many times to ensure it is statistically significant
* ex: older child's intelligence test scores higher than younger child's

Illusory correlation

a perceived but non-existent relationship/correlation between two variables (based on random coincidences)
* believing superstitions

Standard deviation

Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
* large \= scores more spread out from mean
* small \= scores closer to mean
* intelligence test: 68% \= b/ 1 S.D., 95% \= b/ 2 S.D., 99% \= b/ 3 S.D.

Informed consent

Ethical principle that research participants told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

Post-experimental explanation of a study to participants (including its purpose and any deceptions)

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
* believe good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
* ex: not sad when people perceived bad die

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others
* People doing what is right because it is the right thing to do, being selfless
* ex: crowd helping little girl finish singing national anthem when she forgot lyrics

Aggression

Physical/verbal behavior intended to inflict harm on others because of frustration/anger
* meant to hurt/destroy others emotionally or physically

Frustration-aggression principle

The principle that frustration (when our goal gets blocked) creates anger, which can generate aggression
* ex: younger sibling attacks older sibling because older sibling won game

Bystander effect

The tendency for any given person to be less likely to give help to another as the number of bystanders present increases
* the more people there are -\> diffusion of responsibility occurs (think someone else will help)
* ex: someone fell into subway tracks, no one helped

Social loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when working toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
* ex: person not working in group project because they believe group will carry them

Social exchange theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs
* Social interactions based on what will benefit you

Reciprocity norm

If you do something nice for someone, expect that person not to harm you in return
* ex: if you helped person with carrying groceries, expect them not to stab you

Conflict

Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
* people involve in potentially destructive process that can produce unwanted results (ex: feuding cultural groups)

Social trap

People pursuing self-interests rather than good of group (both sides can get caught in mutually destructive behavior)
* ex: people in group project not working together -\> project fails when presented

Ingroup vs. outgroup phenomenon

Ingroup are with whom we share a common group identity (group you are within). Outgroup are those perceived as different/apart from our ingroup (group you are not in). Bias towards ingroup (internal factors)

EX: every student thinks their school is better than all the other schools in their district

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

We tend to make internal personality judgements about others without accounting for external situational factors
* ex: Think person is bad because heard bad things about them (think wife bad for cheating on husband)
* leads to just-world-phenomenon

Diffusion of responsibility

Reduced feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others
* happens to victims of bystander effect

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness/self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity (can lead to aggression)
* people think there is no consequence when with group (this is why ppl cus at pep rallie)

Social-responsibility norm

Expectation that people will help those needing their help (even if costs outweigh benefits)
* people in need: young children and people who cannot give as much as they receive

Philip Zimbardo

Conducted Stanford Prison experiment in which some volunteers assigned to be guards and other assigned to be prisoners
* guards became hostile and prisoners became depressed (discovered situation influences behaviors)

Groupthink

People go along with group decision to maintain group harmony (want to maintain happiness of group so agree with idea)
* instead should listen to many opinions in order to get best idea

Social facilitation (Mere presence affect)

In the presence of others, we tend to do better on tasks we are good at and worse on the tasks we are bad at
* strengthens most likely response

Solomon Asch

Conducted conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines (visual perception test)
* college students match lines -\> 1 student had discomfort disagreeing with everyone else
* when ppl alone \= more intelligent, when with group \= go along with wrong group answer

Stanley Milgram

Conducted obedience to authority experiment, used foot-in-the-door effect
* wanted to see if participants would inflict perceived pain/shock on person after being commanded to do so (many obeyed)

Foot-in-the-door technique

Tendency for people who have agreed to a small request to comply with a larger request later
* ex: communist China asked prisoners small favors (fault capitalism) -\> led to big request of acting against beliefs

Reciprocity

Expectation that ppl. you help will return the favor by helping you

Obedience

Changing one's behavior because authority figure tells us to

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior/thinking to coincide with a group standard (doing smth. because others are)
* participant more likely to say wrong answer because rest of group said that answer

Neurons

Cell in nervous system that can receive, integrate, and transmit information

Axon

Long fiber part of neuron that transmits messages to other neurons/muscles/glands

Soma

Neuron cell body (contains nucleus and other cellular structures)

Dendrites

Neuron's extensions that receives messages (also conducts impulses toward cell body)

Action potential

Neural impulse (brief electrical charge that travels down axon)

Myelin sheath

Fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing axons of some neurons (allows for faster neural impulse transmission speed)

Reuptake

Sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters

Endorphins

Natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure (explains runner's high)

Endocrine system

Consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream in order to regulate bodily functioning

Pituitary gland

Regulates growth and endocrine glands, controlled by neighboring hypothalamus in brain (releases oxytocin - contractions and social trust)

Hormones

Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands that control bodily functioning (slower than neurotransmitters but outlast their effects)
* Influence interest in food, aggression, and sex

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross synaptic gap between sending neuron and receiving neuron, bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron (influ. whether neuron will generate neural impulse)

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter (involved in memory)
* too much --\> migraine
* too little --\> concentration problems

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in pleasurable emotions (and movement/learning)
* too much --\> schizophrenia
* too little --\> decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory
* too little --\> Alzheimer's

Norepinephrine

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal
* too much --\> anxiety
* too little --\> depresses mood

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter
* too much --\> hypersomnia (daytime sleepiness)
* too little --\> insomnia (no sleep)

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that controls mood
* too little --\> depresses mood

Cerebral cortex

Intricate fabric of neural cells that covers both cerebral hemispheres of brain, body's control and info.-processing center

Corpus callosum

Neural fiber connecting both sides of brain and messages between left and right hemispheres

Thalamus

Brain's sensory control center (controls all senses EXCEPT smell), location \= top of brainstem
* directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

Controls primal drives (ex: eating, sleeping, drinking)
* governs pituitary gland
* linked w/ emotion/reward

Reticular information

Nerve network that regulates alertness and arousal

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing (things that are mandatory), regulates reflexes
* location: base of brainstem

Spinal cord

Central nervous system's (CNS) information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to the brain
* nerves that run up and down the length of the back
* makes up central nervous system

Cerebellum

Part of brain that regulates skilled motor movements and balance
* located at rear end of brainstem

Hippocampus

Part of limbic system tied to long-term/conscious memory

Amygdala

Part of the brain that regulates emotions (aggression and fear)
* part of limbic system

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Includes brain and spinal cord
* body's decision maker

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside brain and spinal cord
* sensory and motor neurons that connect CNS to rest of body

Sensation

Stimulation of sense organs (sight, sound, touch, smell, taste)
* Sensory receptors receive/represent stimulus

Perception

Selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input
* Organizing and interpreting sensory information --\> recognition of meaningful events/objects

Bottom-up processing

Putting sensations together from sensory receptors --\> goes to brain for integration
* ex: putting puzzle pieces together

Top-down processing

Interpretation/analysis of end sensation or result
* ex: after puzzle built --\> analysis of picture made

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation needed in order to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
* Humans have good sight absolute threshold

Just noticeable difference (difference threshold)

Minimum difference between 2 stimulus needed in order to detect the difference 50% of the time
* Increases with stimulus size (10 and 100 pound)

Signal detection theory

Theory that we detect stimuli based on other factors like experience, motivations, expectations, and fatigue level (alertness)
* No single absolute threshold

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus one's attention on 1 voice/stimuli among multiple voices/stimuli

Selective attention

States that we can only pay attention to 1 things at a time (not good at doing multiple things)
* Focusing conscious awareness on only 1 stimulus at a time
* Includes Cocktail Party Effect

Circadian Rhythm

Biological clock; regular body rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle (ex: wakefulness in mornings)

Manifest Content

According to Freud --\> the remembered storyline of a dream

Latent Content

According to Freud --\> the underlying meaning of a dream

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorder in which people temporarily stop breathing during sleep and have repeated momentary awakenings
* Tongue collapses into airway (side effect: snoring)

Night terrors

Sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and appearance of being terrified
* Usually happens to children during NREM - 3 sleep

Insomnia

Sleep disorder characterized with recurring problems of falling/staying asleep

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks (occurs at random times and usually less than 5 minutes)

Delta waves

Large slow waves associated with deep sleep

!!! Sleep spindles

Short bursts of brain waves detected in NREM stage 2 sleep

Alpha waves

Slow brain waves that occur during relaxed awake state (usually before sleep)

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; recurring sleep stage in which vivid dreams commonly occur

Wish Fullfillment Theory

Freud's theory that dreams provide psychic safety valve to discharge socially unacceptable feelings
* Dreams are the unconscious desires that are repressed from the consciousness and attempts to resolve repressed conflicts

!!! Information processing theory

Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories

!!! Physiological functioning theory

Belief that dreams serve a physiological function, providing the brain with periodic stimulation that may help develop and preserve neural pathways

Intermittent reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time
* slower acquisition of response but greater resistance to extinction
* ex: why ppl. gamble

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs
* ex: giving rat food every-time it turns on light
* will stop behavior if stop reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Adding of desirable stimulus (reinforcer) strengthens the response
* Ex: dog comes more often if you pet it (reinforcer) when you call it