Great land based Empires:

The Ottoman Empire:

• Turkish empire exists across middle east and north Africa into southeast Europe.

• Started in 1300s

• Turkish Muslim empire, ruler the sultan, protector of the Dar al Islam.

• Cosmopolitan empire

• Religious tolerance, no imposition of Islam.

• Responsibility to protect.

• Put end to the byzantine empire, conquered Constantinople renamed Istanbul, became capital

• Heavily involved in trade land/sea.

• Safavid rivals to the east/Persian empire.

• Fought over Mesopotamia, and fought because of religious difference

• Ottoman Sunni Islam, Safavid Shia Islam.

• Attractive destination for Jewish communities in Spain

• 1492, end of Reconquista

• Monarchy imposed religious uniformity, forcible conversion to Christianity.

• Many people settled in tolerant Ottoman empire. Cosmopolitan.

Devshirme:

• Took Christian children from the Balkans

• Given education, raised as Muslims

• Then put into gov. or military wing called Janissaries depending on skills.

• Gunpowder weapons.

Cossacks:

• People from southern Russia, mixed ethnic groups: Slavic, and central Asian.

• Facilitated spread of Russian empire.

• Conquest led by Cossack groups.

• Made deals with Russian empire. Conquest of Central Asia for full independence.

Peter the Great + Westernization:

• Russia is backwards compared to rest of Europe

• Most famous Tsar of Russia

• Toured Europe, building and commerce, innovation.

• Implemented westernization program to bring Russia into the orbit of Europe.

• Adopts western tech. Adopts into the military: Cannons, gunpowder weapons. Shipbuilding, builds first Russian Navy.

• Adopts new education system for the Elite, modeled after European education

• New capital: St. Petersburg, modeled after European cities.

• Had access to Europe by Sea, warm water port.

• Reforms are not political. Maintains absolute authority as Tsar. Unquestionable authority.

• Agricultural peasants still remained in serfdom.

• Sets pattern of Russian modernization looking west.

Ismail:

• Founder of Safavid dynasty

• Part Persian, Armenian and Greek.

• Developed loyal following, part of Sufi brotherhood, mystical form of Islam.

• Conquer Persian plateau in 1501.

• Decides to forcibly convert Safavid empire to Shia Islam: Thought he could not control his territory if people practiced Sunni Islam since they neighbored the Ottomans, wanted to keep influence out of the Safavid Empire.

Mughal Empire:

• Turkish dynasty similar to Ottoman and Safavid.

• Babur founder

• Defeats the Delhi Sultanate, establishes Muslim dynasty.

• Unites Indian subcontinent.

• Muslim minority in control of Hindu majority 20/80.

• Couldn’t force Islam, Hindu too deeply rooted.

• Connections with Europe.

• No Navy, relied on Europeans to trade Indian goods by sea. Portuguese, French, English.

• Most valuable good: Textiles. Greatest cotton producing empire.

• Europeans took textiles across the world to be sold.

Akbar:

• Ruled from 1556-1605

• Implements toleration of Hindu and incorporation of them into gov.

• Allows them to build temples, marries some Hindu princesses.

• Rajput's, Manzabars. Military gov officials for a certain land collect taxes of that land.

• Discourages and outlaws Sati (funeral pyre thing)

• Lifted Jizya

Aurangzeb:

• Ruled 1558-1707

• Reversed Abkars policies.

• Favored Muslims in gov, excluded Hindus.

• Reimposed Jizya tax

• Led to instability of Empire. Revolts led by Hindus.

Ming Dynasty:

• 1538-1644

• Succeeded Yuan dynasty (Mongol dynasty)

• Reimplementation of traditional Chinese culture.

• Revived Exam system, Neo-Confucian learning

• Scholar bureaucracy teaching Confucianism

• Restore Chinese agriculture

• Open up land, long distance trade.

• Starts strong, declines halfway through.

• Environmental: Little Ice Age affected agriculture, led to famine.

• Contrasts with Song, lack of tech innovation. Chauvinistic attitude to other cultures.

• Thought they were superior.

• Political dynamic: no male could enter the Forbidden city unless they were a eunuch seen as a threat.

• Chinese scholars look down on eunuchs.

• Some eunuchs were powerful

• Conquered by the Manchu's north of China, weak gov, peasant rebellion.

• Established Chang dynasty.

• Part of Silver trade. Used to buy Chinese goods.

Zheng He's Expeditions

• 7 Naval expeditions led by Zheng He, Muslim eunuch.

• Not expeditions of conquest, expeditions to project Chinese primacy, strength and establishes tributary relations, sending gifts on yearly basis.

Sikhism:

• Religion from North India in 15th century during Mughal times.

• Founded by Nanak.

• Blended Hindu, Islam and Buddhism.

• Fundamental equality of all people, men and women

• Leaders called Gurus.

• Hostile toward Mughals, constant fighting.

• Potent military force

Conquest of Siberia:

• In search of Fur, facilitated by Little Ice Age

• Russians par outnumbered Siberian pop.

• Brought diseases, no immunities

• Become Russified over time: Adopted language and religion

The Columbian Exchange:

• Exchange of Food, animals, people, diseases.

East--> West

• Wheat, grapes, olives,

West--> East

• Corn, beans, squash, cocoa, tobacco, peanuts

• Leads to pop. Boom in Europe and China.

East --> West Animals:

• Horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs.

• Trade of Diseases.

People:

• Slave trade.

The Great Dying:

• Spread of Epidemic diseases to Native American populations

• 90% of pop died.

• Took long time to recover.

New Laws of 1542:

• Response to Spanish conquistadors in the New World

• Abuse and exploit of Native Americans

• Outlaw enslavement, start to phase out encomienda system

• Did not work, hard to impose laws from so far away.

Bartolome De las Casas:

• Writes letters about this to Spanish monarchy

• First articulation of Human rights.

Encomienda System:

• Organization of land and labor of the Caribbean

• Treated native Americans like slaves, no protection.

• System of Exploitation and Abuse.

Spanish Reconquista:

• 600 years' war, beginning in 711.

• Muslim forces invade Iberian peninsula, becoming Al-Andalus

• Northern Christian kingdoms fought Muslim authorities and pushed them slowly out.

• Ends in 1492 when Granada is taken over.

European Maritime Exploration

Portuguese Trading Post Empire:

• First in West Africa, after Gold.

• Vasco de Gama reached India and established trading posts all the way to SE Asia.

• Owned and controlled by Force

• Relationship with Kingdom of the Kongo

Spanish Philippines:

• Spanish colonies, tribute, taxes, coerced labor enforced.

Dutch East India Company:

Navigational Tech:

• Lateen Sail: Triangular sail allows to sail into the wind.

• Stern Post Rudder: Dev. In Song. More maneuverable

• Magnetic Compass: Developed in China

• Astrolabe: Latitude

• Europeans adopted these from other cultures, through trade routes.

Caravel:

• Portuguese designed.

• Incorporates all Nav. tech

• Low draft, good for exploring along coast and up river.

Mercantilism:

• Econ. Theory adopted by euro states.

• Power of any state is related to how much wealth they have

• Goal should be to accumulate wealth, encourages export

• Discourages imports, imposed tariffs.

• Development of colonies

Francis Xavier:

• Jesuit Priest, co-founder of Jesuit order

• Becomes great missionaries

• Goes to India, Southeast Asia, Japan.

• Jesuits couldn’t force Asian people to convert, had to appeal to them

• Understands Japanese culture and appeals to it to get conversion.

Joint-Stock Companies:

• Long distance sea trade is risky, expensive.

• Made maritime trade possible.

• Offers small parts of the company for sale to investors in shares

• If expeditions failed, distributes risk but distributes profit if succeeded.

Silver Trade:

• Tokugawa shogunate divided Japan.

• Lots of Japanese converted to Christianity

• Shogun saw missionaries as a threat, expelled them with violence.

• Used silver to strengthen themselves.

• Potosi in Bolivia rich in Silver.

British East India Company:

• Madras, Bombay, Calcutta.

• Could not fight Mughal empire on land, traded with bribes.

• Joint-Stock company

• Imposed own military forces

• Employed native forces in India to fight for them.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

Great Circuit War:

• Trade Network that develops due to the Columbian exchange.

• Slave trade, Plantation agriculture, 3 legs across Atlantic

• Metal, textiles, alcohol, most important, gunpowder weapons.

• Taken to coast of Africa for slaves.

• Taken across middle passage

• Slaves traded for cash crops: Indigo, rice, sugar, tobacco.

• Sold in euro markets to buy more goods for African slave traders.

Vasco De Gama:

• Port. Navigator

• Completed project of circumnavigating Africa to get to the east in 1498

First Maroon War/Maroon Societies:

• Societies created by escaped slaves, mainly central and south America.

• Lived in jungle/forest areas. Combined with Native American tribes

• Would attack plantations and liberate slaves

• Refugees.

• Happens in Jamaica, 12 years, 1728-1740

• Between Brits and maroon societies.

• Sign a peace treaty in 1740 to agree to not attack maroon colonies if they didn’t take any more refugees.

Prince Henry the Navigator:

• Portuguese aristocrat

• Sponsored attempts to find a route to Indian Ocean through the sea.

• Enticed by spices in Asia.

European Slave Factories:

• On coast of trading ports, huge warehouses with goods and resources were kept.

• Slave traders did the same on coast of West Africa. Holding houses where slaves were kept.

• Waiting to be transferred to the New World.

• Would have slaves plant cash crops.

Middle Passage:

• Transport of slaves to the New World.

• Chained below deck

• Unhealthy, unsanitary, terrifying.

• Given little fresh air and exercise

• Some committed suicide/employed netting to prevent it.

• 1/6 death rate

• Dysentery, infection of intestines uncontrollable diarrhea.

Islamic Slave Trade:

• Predated slave trade

• Traded through sea roads and sand roads

• Valued children and women, domestic work

• Not exclusively African

Colonial Societies

Metacoms War:

• 1675-76

• Occurs in the Northeast of the British colonies in NA.

• Native Americans joined together and attacked British colonists.

• British defeated them.

• Good example of resistance to Euro colonialism.

Peninsulares:

• Europeans sent by Spanish king to govern colonies in central and south America.

• Hated by creoles. (whites born in New World)

• Monopolized political power which creoles wanted.

• Top of social hierarchy

Hacienda System:

• Organization of agricultural economy.

• Replaced encomienda system

• NA peons as labor force

• Paid little, debt, abused by creoles. Not slaves but basically are.

• Grow food and raise animals for local markets

Pueblo Revolts:

• 1680, south west of USA.

• Spanish took land from natives, limited access to water, forcible imposition of Christianity.

• Population diminished

• Able to beat Spanish forces and have independence for 12 years.

• Spanish come back and defeat them.

• Resistance example

Casta system:

• Social hierarchy implemented in the New World

• Ensured Spanish European dominance

• Structured on racial components

Creoles:

• People born in the colonies but had white blood.

• Elites, but second class to the Peninsulares

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation:

• Disputes between Roman Catholic popes and Euro Kings.

• Catholic Church was corrupt, practices of Simony, Indulgences.

• Martin Luther

Indulgences:

• Purgatory, after death you went to a middle phase before going to heaven.

• Pope Leo X, offered indulgences to finance St. Peters Basilica.

• Buying indulgences removed sins.

Martin Luther:

• God forgave sins for free, saw that salvation itself was a gift of grace, not a reward for good works.

• Priesthood demoted, idea of priesthood of all believers was attractive.

• Sola Scripture, final authority was the Bible, not the pope.

• 95 These, outlined complaints with Catholic church.

• Printing press facilitated the spread of them.

• Denounced as a heretic.

• Believed in vernacular translations of the bible. Only available in Latin, only small amount of people could understand it.

John Calvin/Calvinism:

• Systematized protestant beliefs with the Institutes of the Christian Religion.

• Doctrine of Predestination: God decided who would be saved, not human choice

• Elect: Who god chose to save.

• Theocracy, bible was the rule of law.

• Accumulation of wealth was seen as a sign of God’s favor to the elect.

Anglican Church and King Henry the VIII

• Protestant church of England

• Established the church to “divorce” the catholic church

• Not that much different to Catholic Church

Puritans:

• Challenged lingering practices of catholic church in England.

• Calvinist, led to conflict with Stuart monarchs, led to civil war, where puritans won.

The Counter Reformation:

• Catholic Reformation

• Formation of Jesuits by Ignatius of Loyola, educated the church

• Inquisition: Rooted out heretics among the church, created prohibited books index. Protestant reformers books.

• Ursulines, educated young catholic girls, missionary impulse.

• St Teresa, Carmelite order, life of prayer.

Council Of Trent:

• Called by Pope Paul the Third

• Goal to resolve the differences between protestants and Catholics

• Protestants complained of Simony: Buying and selling of church offices, Immorality of clergy, and Indulgences, paying to repent sins.

• Suppressed Simony, reestablished celibacy of priesthood, cleaned up practice of selling indulgences. Couldn’t be sold to finance Catholic buildings.

• Affirmed that salvation comes by faith and good works

• Affirmed doctrine of transubstantiation, eucharist.

• Split remained permanent.

Matteo Ricci:

• Jesuit Priest

• Founding figure of Jesuit China mission.

Mestizo:

• Mixed Indian and Spanish people

Mullattoes:

• Mixed African and European people