full Lec exam 2

Pericardium

Tough membrane covering the heart

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

An enlarged heart condition in non-athletes.

Pulmonary Circuits

Transport blood to & from the lungs; picksup oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.

Systemic circuit

Transports oxygenated blood to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.

Cardiac Muscles have what type of discs?

intercalated Discs

Myofibrils

smallest functional unit of your cardiac muscle

Inside muscle of heart

Endocardium

Middle muscle of heart

Myocardium

Outer cavity of heart

pericardial cavity

Outer fiber of heart

fibrous pericardial

Chordae tendineae

string-like extensions that connect heart valves to papillary muscles

Papillary muscles

extension of myocardium where chordae tendineae attach. In ventricles, strong muscle bands.

Trabeculae carnae

ridges of muscles covered by endocardium. Top layer present in ventricles

Mitral Regurgitation

A condition where the mitral valve fails to close properly, allowing blood to flow backward into the left atrium. One common cause is the rupture of the chordae tendineae, which compromises the valve’s ability to seal effectively.

Surgical repairs for mitral regurgitation

chordal transfer and chordal replacement

Mitral Valve Prolapse

valve leaflets bulge into the left atrium during systole

Repair strategies for mitral valve prolapse

artificial chordae tendineae

Myocardial contractile cells

bulk (99%) of the heart muscle responsible for contraction and pumping blood.

Myocardial conducting cells

(1% of cells) form the conduction system of the heart

Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Pacemaker

superior and posterior walls of the right atrium; generates 60-100 beats/min.

Atrioventricular (AV) Node

inferior portion of the right atrium within the atrioventricular septum.

Atrioventricular Bundle (Bundle of His)

Moves impulses from the AV Node through the interventricular septum, dividing into left and right bundle branches.

Purkinje Fibers

Spread impulses throughout the ventricles, ensuring coordinated contraction.

Calcium (Ca2+)

triggers depolarization

Sodium (Na+)

tries to keep membrane potential positive

Potassium (K+)

tries to keeps MP negative

Depolarization

1st, contract

Repolarization

End, relax

Cardiac Cycle

starting from atrium contracting (systole) to ventricle relaxing (diastole)

Systole (contraction)

Contraction of the heart where blood is pumped into circulation.

Diastole (relaxation)

Relaxation phase as chambers refill with blood.

When do potassium channels close?

after refractory period, which is when repolarization takes place

ECG or EKG

Electrocardiogram

P wave

Signal from the atria. (Small peak. sinoatrial node/depolarization)

QRS Complex

Signals from the ventricles. (bundle of his. Q bottom of peak, R peak, S bottom of peak.)

T wave

Indicates recovery phase of ventricles. (thru apex thru purkinje fibers)

Auscultation

stethoscope to chest to hear heart sounds

Inhalation

increases blood flow into the right side of the heart and may increase the amplitude of right-sided heart murmurs.

Expiration

partially restricts blood flow into the left side of the heart and may amplify left-sided heart murmurs.

Atherosclerosis

Build up of plaque in arteries

Arteries

blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart, branching into smaller vessels (arterioles)

Capillaries

A microscopic channel that supplies blood to the tissues, a process called perfusion

Tunica Intima of artery

usually appears wavy.

Tunica Media of artery

thickest layer in arteries. smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers.

Tunica externa of artery

Nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum present

Tunica intima of veins

endothelium appears smooth. no internal elastic membrane

Tunica media of vein

normally thinner than the tunica externa. smooth muscle cells and collagenous fibers predominate. nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum present. external elastic membrane absent.

tunica externa of vein

thickest layer in veins. collagenous and smooth fibers predominate. nervi vasorum and vasa vasorum present.

Continous capillary

Found in almost all vascularized tissues. No indentations, no breaks. One layer of continuous membrane. glucose, water, gases and hormones can pass.

Fenestrated Capillaries

Contains pores (fenestrations) in addition to tight junctions in the endothelial lining. The holes act as a filter. small intestine and kidneys; permeable to larger molecules.

Sinusoid Capillaries

Least common type; flattened, with extensive intercellular gaps and incomplete basement membranes.

Intracellular gaps that allows substances in and out

Location: Liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow. Passage of largest molecules like plasma proteins and cells.

Metarteriole

A vessel with structural characteristics of both an arteriole and a capillary.

Vasomotion

Irregular pulsating flow within capillaries.

Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP):

The pressure exerted by blood against capillary walls.

Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)

Pressure created by colloidal proteins in the blood.

Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)

Interaction of hydrostatic and osmotic pressures, driving fluid out of the capillary.

Blood pressure

Force of blood against artery walls. Measured in large arteries.Drives blood flow through arteries and veins. More specific; key factor in capillary exchange influencing fluid movement.

Blood Hydrostatic Pressure

Pressure exerted by blood plasma inside capillaries. Measured in capillaries. Helps push fluids out of capillaries into tissues.

Pulse pressure

Difference between systolic (top number) and diastolic (bottom number) pressure. 120/80 = 40mmHg. Greater than 40mmHh is unhealthy.

Neural mechanisms

cranial nerves, medulla

Endocrine mechanisms

renal, adrenal, brain, heart

Autoregulatory mechanisms

vasodilators, vasoconstrictors

Neurological regulation depends on cardiovascular centers in the

medulla oblongata

Vascular Baroreceptors

Found in aortic and carotid sinuses; help monitor blood pressure.

Low-pressure baroreceptors located in venae cavae and right atrium.

3 vessels in pulmonary circuit

pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins.

Aorta and the systemic arteries

send blood to virtually every organ of the body

Brachiocephalic artery

located only on the right side of the body with no corresponding artery on the left, branches into right subclavian artery and the right common carotid artery. All go up to your brain.

external carotid artery

Supplies blood to face, lower jaw, neck, esophagus, larynx.

internal carotid atrery

Forms carotid sinus (contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors); supplies blood to the brain, eyes, vertebral arteries.

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA, mini-stroke)

Loss of blood flow for a few seconds results in temporary neurological loss. often go unnoticed.

cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

Irreversible brain damage or stroke, with interruption for 3-4 minutes.

Superior vena Cava

Drains most of the body above the diaphragm.

Internal Jugular Veins

drain blood from the brain and superficial facial vein.

Inferior Vena Cava

Large systemic vein draining blood from areas beneath the diaphragm; empties into the right atrium.

Renal Vein

Largest vein entering the inferior vena cava; drains the kidneys.

Adrenal Vein

Drains adrenal gland

Hepatic Vein

Drains blood from the liver to inferior vena cava.

Cirrhosis

Damage to liver sinusoids

Umbilical vein

Carries oxygen-rich blood from mother to fetal heart via ductus venosus.

What marks the location of the former foramen ovale

Fossa Ovalis

Ductus Venosus

Bypasses fetal liver, connecting umbilical vein to fetal heart.

Lymph Nodes

Small, bean-shaped organs located throughout the lymphatic system.

Lacteals

lymphatic capillaries transport dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins to the bloodstream.

Chyle

Formed when dietary triglycerides combine with other lipids and proteins as they enter lacteals, resulting in a milky fluid.

Functions of Chyle

Contains lymphocytes (white blood cells), contributing to the body's immune defenses.

Innate Immune responses

Rapid response involving specialized cells and soluble factors.

Examples of Innate immune responses

Neutrophils, lymphocytes, macrophages&monocytes, eosinophils, basophils. Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

Natural Killer cells

Contain cytotoxic (cell-killing) granules; detect and destroy what doesnt belong to you, using a “fas ligand”.

Monocytes & Macrophages (innate)

monocytes circulate in the blood, they grow into macrophages and engulf pathogen through phagocytosis.

Immunosenescence

is the loss of immune function with age. Shrinking of thymus gland starts after puberty. It keeps shrinking until about 35 -45 yrs after which shrinkage happens at 1% per year.

Gene Implication of immunosenescence

FOXN1 implicated in the aging process of thymic function.

Primary routes of entry

Afferent lymphatic vessels

Primary route of exit

Efferent vessels

Spleen

attached to the lateral border of the stomach via the gastrosplenic ligament

Glycoproteins are held together by

disulfide bonds

Light chain

Variable region (top) (beta chain)

Heavy chain

constant region (bottom) (alpha chain)

Class switching

change of one antibody class to another

IgM

first antibody made in primary response, antibody produced in a B cells can change.

IgG

late primary responses and the main antibody of secondary responses in the blood. only antibody that Can cross through the placenta. Moms take vaccines so immunity passes to baby.