Weeks 1-4 GEOG 1402

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167 Terms

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Soil
Upper layer of Earth, which plant roots extend and has been modified by organisms and water

soil is the uppermost portion of regolith that has been modified by organisms
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Pedogenesis
process of soil formation
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climate, time, parent material, organisms, relief
5 factors of pedogenesis
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Munsell Soil Chart
chart used by soil scientists to classify soil color
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Weathering
process by which solid rock is dissolved and broken into smaller fragments, eventually creating soil
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Bedrock
is rock that is structurally part of and connected to the Earth's crust
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Regolith
the layer of unconsolidated rocky material, including soil, covering bedrock
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Soil horizons
are horizontal zones within soil that are identified by their different physical and chemical properties
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Leaching
is the process by which rainwater carries DISSOLVED NUTRIENTS downward
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Eluviation
the transport of soil material from upper layers of soil to lower levels by downward precipitation of water across soil horizons

the process in which rainwater carries SOIL PARTICLES downward
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Illuviation
deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B horizon)
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O, A, E, B, C, R
Soil Hroizons (top to bottom)
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Humus
primarily dead litter (leaves, dead animals)
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Topsoil
organic matter (from living) topsoil

most plant roots restricted to this horizon
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Transition
formed by ELUVIATION & LEACHING as rainwater moves dissolved chemicals and small clay particles deeper

lighter in colour than topsoil, represents transition of topsoil and subsoil
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Subsoil
Through the process of ILLUVIATION dissolved chemicals & clay are deposited

High concentrations of clay, aluminum and iron
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weathered bedrock
Unconsolidated weathered rock

little to no organic material
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Solid bedrock
solid unweathered bedrock
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Lithosphere
Rock fragments and minerals
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Hydrosphere
All the water on earth
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Atmosphere
air- A thin layer of gases surrounding Earth
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Biosphere
Organic material
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soil texture triangle
a chart used to classify the makeup of various soils
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sand, silt, clay
3 textures of soil

Sand being bigger than silt and silt being bigger than clay
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Loam
40% sand, 40% silt, 20% clay

- Farmers value b/c it retains and transmit moisture and nutrients that are easily accessible to plants

- Ideal texture for growing most crops
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Sandy, rocky soils
high porosity

- large pores allow water to drain from these soils fast and nutrients are quickly leached out from plants

- make poor agricultural soils
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Clay and silt soils
low porosity

- small particles prevent water flow making it unsuitable for many plants
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Physical weathering
the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals
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Chemical weathering
The process that breaks down rock through chemical changes, involving water
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soil and climate
Soils develop most quickly where it is warm and wet and most slowly where it is cold and aired climates.
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Parent material
is the geological material from which soil is formed from such as rocks and minerals
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Bioturbation
The process by which organisms rework existing sediments by burrowing through muds and sands.
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Anthropogenic soils
People can form soils intentionally by composting.
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"Black gold" soil
soil developed from humans composting food scraps, rich for growing crops
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Soil topography
steep slopes don't allow soil to accumulate. therefore steep slopes have thinner soils than the area directly above and below the slope.
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Northern hemisphere and soil
south facing slopes are usually dry and warm, while those facing the north are moisture and cooler
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Soil and time
In nature, a few centimeters of soil take centuries or more to form
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soil erosion
Human activity is causing soil erosion to happen faster than soils form naturally
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Soil taxonomy
The soil taxonomy classification system groups soils into 12 orders, based mainly on horizon development and color
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Importance of soil
Soils provide food and other ecosystem services, such as new medicines, climate change mitigation, and water purification
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Contour plowing
plowing fields along the curves of a slope to prevent soil loss
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Terrace farming
farming system in the form of steps going up the mountain
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Brown soil
iron oxidizes with high organic content
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red or orange soils
Strong chemical weathering of iron and aluminum
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Blue/green-gray soil
persistently saturated soils
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gray soil
heavy leaching or iron
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Cryosolic
it is typically found north of the tree line

- it is the dominant soil in the Arctic Archipelago and around Hudson Bay

- this soil type is found where the mean annual temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius and where continuous permafrost is common
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Chernozemic
- Soil of Canada's agricultural bread basket; the Prairies

- Have thick, dark A horizons, rich in organic matter

- Roots of grasses provide material for decomposition
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Luvisolic
It is most commonly found in humid continental climates (Southern Ontario) and is most commonly associated with deciduous vegetation

High amounts of organic content are evident due to trees dropping leaves creating a thick organic layer

Warm summers lead to quick decomposition of organic material thus adding to the soil.
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Podzolic
- It is most commonly found in cool, moist climates (Canadian Shield) and is light grey in colour.

- it is commonly associated with the boreal forest

- moisture easily percolates downward through this soil due to the large pore spaces
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Brunisolic
- Forest soil of cooler, drier locations

- Associated with sandy, glacial deposits

- Tend to be somewhat acidic

- Thick, brown horizon, not as well developed as the podzols (no distinct Ae)
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organic soil
- Called histosols in other countries

- Accumulation of organic matter (peat) in water-logged soils

- Large amount of organic matter (high in carbon) means organic soils are of great interest to climate science!
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Unclassified areas
- Not all of Canada has abundant soils

- Glacial ice and exposed bedrock occur in many locations across Canada

- This includes portions of central Ontario dominated by exposed Canadian Shield bedrock
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Soil and medicine
Soil bacteria used for antibiotics
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Soil and climate change
Soil can hold lots of carbon than those in living biomass

- Removal of vegetation cover that holds soil in place can result in oxidation of soil carbon

- when carbon is exposed to air\= oxidizes\=CO2 and CH4 (methane)
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Percentage of Earth's water in oceans
97.2%
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Percentage of the world's freshwater
2.8%
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Amount of freshwater we have access to
22%, 77% is locked in glaciers
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Desalination plant
the process of removing salt from seawater so that it can be used for drinking and irrigation
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Water scarcity
When water outputs exceed water inputs\= water scarcity
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potential evapotranspiration
-the amount of water that would evaporate and be transpired if it were available

-When evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation\= natural water deficit
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Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI)
An index of drought that uses temperature and precipitation to represent moisture conditions in a region relative to long-term average temperature and precipitation within the region.

-negative\= orange, red and maroon
- positive\= light & dark green
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ground water & drought
Ground water is slower to respond to drought, it is a buffer for streams and lakes
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Porosity
air spaces \= pores, porosity\=available air space

- a measure of the available air space within soil, sediments, or rocks
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Permeability
how easily water can move through the soil
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Porosity
can absorb water, the amount of pores, or open space, between soil particles
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High permeabilty
Water can pass through easily

- Straight channels allow water to flow easily

- Angular channels slow the flow between pores
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Infiltration
the process by which water seeps into the ground through the forces of gravity
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Infiltration rate
how fast water infiltrates the soil

- Depends on the permeability of the soil

- High permeability\= high infiltration rates
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Percolation
the process by which rainwater moves through the soil through narrow, meandering channels

- After water enters the soil through infiltration percolation occurs
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Aquifer
A body of rock or sediment that stores groundwater and allows the flow of groundwater.
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Aquiclude
is a sediment or rock layer that is highly porous but not permeable. Ex. clay

- Have low or no porosity or permeability

- Limit or prevent water movement
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Unconfined aquifers
rainwater can move into them directly from the surface
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Confined aquifer
when an aquiclude separates an aquifer from the surface
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Zone of aeration
The area of an unconfined aquifer above the water table where the pore spaces among soil particles and rock formations are filled with air.
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The water table
The upper level of the saturated zone of groundwater

- is the top surface of the aquifers zone of saturation
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Capillary fringe
the region of transition between the zone of aeration and the zone of saturation
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zone of saturation
The lower zone where water accumulates between small rock particles.
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Discontinuous aquicludes
localised impermeable layers of rock or sediment
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perched water table
a localised water table that lies above the regional water table

- Perched water tables form where discontinuous aquicludes prevent water from flowing downward to the regional water table.
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Springs
a naturally occurring discharge of groundwater that is pushed to the ground surface by hydraulic pressure

- perched water tables can create springs
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Hydraulic pressure
- Water fed into our homes is at a higher elevation and gravity forces the water through the pipes that lead into our homes and faucets

- Water gushes from our faucets b/c our homes lie below the potentiometric surface created by the elevation of the water supply
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potentiometric surface
- the elevation to which hydraulic pressure will push water in pipes or wells

- Structures higher than the potentiometric surface have no water pressure
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Wells
- a hole dug or drilled by people to gain access to groundwater
When a well is drilled downward into the zone of saturation, it fills with water up to the height of the water table.

- The tops of most wells lie above the potentiometric surface of the aquifer, so pumps (or buckets) must be used to lift the water up out of the well
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Artesian well
- is a well that has been drilled through an aquiclude into a confined aquifer below that may gush water

- No pumping required b/c they are below the potentiometric surface of the recharge area of the aquifer

- May form from where sedimentary rocks are tilted and permeable and impermeable layers of rocks intersect the ground surface, forming a confined aquifer
the recharge area creates hydraulic pressure that pushes water through the aquifer, much as a water tower pushes water through the pipes of a building
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Hydrologic imbalance
Too much too fast

- Humans can disrupt height of water table by groundwater overdraft and ground water mining
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Groundwater Overdraft
is the removal of water from an aquifer faster than the aquifer is recharged at the site of the well
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Cone of depression
Often caused by groundwater overdraft

- a cone shaped lowering of the water table around the well from which water is being removed
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Salt water intrusion
the contamination of a well by salt water as a result of groundwater overdraft


- In coastal regions, a freshwater aquifer may lie on top of salty groundwater.
Freshwater is relatively less dense and light compared to saltwater, so the freshwater remains above the salt water.

- Groundwater overdraft that removes freshwater from the aquifer may cause the salty water to migrate higher in the aquifer and contaminate wells

- Is permanent and irreversible
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Land subsidence
a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth's surface owing to subsurface movement of earth materials

- When water is removed, these pores can collapse under the weight of the sediments.

- When this happens, the elevation of the land surface drops as the sediments are compacted

- Most cases, once the pores in the aquifer collapse, they can no longer hold water, and the aquifer is lost permanently.
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Groundwater mining
is the process of extracting groundwater from areas where there is little to no groundwater recharge

- Is fossil groundwater, water that entered the aquifer long ago and is no longer being replenished

- Most came from now melted Laurentide ice sheet that covered much of NA

- The deeper the water table becomes, the more energy and money is required to pump water b/c it has a longer way to go to reach the surface
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Contaminant plume
- a cloud of pollution that migrates through the aquifer away from its source

- Any pollutants that enter an aquifer stay there for centuries or longer

- Loss of aquifer through groundwater pollution is in most cases permanent
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Groundwater remediation
the process of cleaning a contaminated aquifer
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Pangea
A super-continent containing all of Earth's land that existed about 300 million years ago.
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Laurasia and Gondwana
vast continents that split from Pangea
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Tethys Sea
ocean area between Laurasia and Gondwana
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Laurasia consisted of:
North America, Greenland and Eurasia
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Gondwana consisted of:
South America, Australia, Africa, India and Antarctica
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Rondinia
Was superconintent prior to Pangea, 1 billion years ago
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Alfred Lothar Wegener
Proposed the continental drift theory