HPED1020 - Leadership and Communication

Leadership

A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal; a leader uses leadership to guide the members of their organization, society, or team

3 Classes of Leadership

Administrative, Supervisory, Direct

Administrative Leadership

• Involves orchestrating tasks, mobilizing people, sustaining organization

• Not always present

• Establishes a clear structure, guidelines, protocols, and procedures to ensure efficiency and consistency in operations and work

• ie. High-level and executive roles would employ administrative leadership (Chief Operating Officer, Chief Administrative Officer, Administrative Director/Manager, Office Manager, etc.)

Supervisory Leadership

• Involves planning tasks, overseeing steps, watching but not always involved directly in the completion of tasks or procedures

• Observes and monitors the work of employees from day to day to ensure tasks are completed correctly, accurately, and efficiently

• ie. A shift supervisor in a retail store who assigns tasks and monitors customer service

Direct Leadership

• Leadership that is face to face, present, and directly involved

• Involves implementing leadership skills while working directly on tasks (may be used by employees or staff working directly on a task for the company)

Appointed Leadership

• Appointed by authority; this could be a senior executive or a board of officials at a company, a coach appointing a team member to be Team Captain, a teacher appointing a student as Class Representative, etc.

• PROS:

  • No democratic process needed

  • Allows for faster decision making to be completed

  • Can make the appointed leader feel accomplished and recognized

  • The appointed leader will be accountable to the authority’s goals and values

• CONS

  • The rest of the group or team may disagree or be unhappy with the decision

  • The appointed leader may feel pressured to live up to the authority or peers’ standards

  • Lower morale or feeling lack of empowerment from the team

Elected Leadership

• The person is “elected” for the leadership role through democratic process

• PROS:

  • Allows for people to vote a leader in who they think will be the best fit, so they have some measure of input and power in the decision-making process

  • Elected leaders serve those who voted them in, rather than higher-ups who may have appointed them in

• CONS:

  • Time consuming

  • In certain cases, it becomes a popularity contest (the elected person may be popular and well-liked, but may not actually be the best fit for the role)

  • A person who is not a good fit or a good leader can be elected

Emergent Leadership

• Someone or multiple individuals “emerge” as the leader and take charge

• PROS:

  • Quick and easy

  • Allows for increased autonomy and adaptability

  • Anyone can take charge; fosters engagement

• CONS:

  • Lack of structure; roles can become less clear

  • If one person is taking the leadership role, some people may disagree or be unhappy with their decisions

  • Group members may become over-reliant on the person who emerged as the leader

Charismatic Leadership

• People become naturally drawn to an individual based on their personality; followers become more inclined to follow someone who they like the personality of and can align themselves with their values, beliefs, and goals

• PROS:

  • Followers are satisfied and completely buy in to the leader, values, beliefs, and shared goals (higher group morale)

  • The leader can easily inspire motivation and foster encouragement

  • The group becomes more emotionally connected to not only the leader, but also to each other

• CONS:

  • The leader could easily manipulate or take advantage of their followers

  • The leader could become burnt out from the responsibilities

  • Followers could unintentionally put pressure on the leader and expect them to be perfect at all times

  • Risk of overconfidence

Halo Effect

• A cognitive bias in which the overall impression of a person influences how others feel and think about a person’s specific traits

  • Leaders can come from the halo effect by being chosen or seen as a good leader simply based on their personality or prior experience, even if there may be someone with a less charismatic personality or no experience who could be a better leader

4 Components of Effective Leadership

• Leader’s qualities: Not one specific trait; some common qualities are needed (ie. intrinsic motivation, empathy, intelligence, optimism)

• Leadership styles: A blend of styles is used; a leader can identify which style is best for which situation

• Situational factors: Consider the situation: group or individual, time, the competency of followers, group commitment and maturity, the specific task, etc.

• Follower’s qualities: Leader shifts and changes styles or adapts to the personalities, capabilities, and skills of the followers

4 Major Changes to Leadership

• Democratic society

• Information and technology explosion

• Growth in leisure services

• Altered styles and approaches

Changes to Leadership: Democratic Society

• A democratic society allows for people to vote in and decide who they want to be the leader

• As such, when someone new is voted in, there are bound to be major changes to leadership compared to the previous leader, especially if their political views or values/beliefs are drastically different

Changes to Leadership: Information and Technology Explosion

The growth of technology has made it much easier to communicate with others and exchange ideas. As such, a person’s leadership style can change when communicating through technology (ie. email, text, etc) as opposed to in-person

Changes to Leadership: Growth in Leisure Services

Many services provide improved leisure and ease of access; this requires leaders to adapt and implement some of these services, but also places responsibility on the leader to ensure these services are not overused or over-relied on

Changes to Leadership: Altered Styles and Approaches

• Over time, many different styles and approaches to leadership have emerged and developed

• Often times, leaders must adapt to a style or approach that is most effective for the given situation or what they want to achieve

Legitimate Power

• The authority granted to individuals based on their official position or role within an organization or societal structure

• i.e., a police officer enforces laws and ensures public safety — the power they have is part of the authority that they hold, which is seen as recognized and accepted because they uphold laws and regulations

Reward Power

• Obtaining power through means of offering rewards to others

• i.e., a manager offers a salary increase to employees based on their performance

Coercive Power

• Someone in a position of authority uses the threat of punishment to force subordinates into complying with their demands

• i.e., dictatorial leaderships often use coercive power in order to control their societies

Expert Power

• The ability to influence people as a result of being highly knowledgeable, skilled, and perceived as superior to others in a given situation

• i.e., a university professor teaching a class is considered the expert in that field or course; they have the power to guide, teach, and grade students in their field of knowledge

Information Power

• The ability to influence people through controlling, accessing, or providing information — often information that they need, want, or believe to be true

• i.e., a leader withholds confidential information from the group and obtains power when group members comply in order to obtain that information

Referent Power

• The ability to influence people gained through admiration, loyalty, and respect for a leader’s personal qualities and actions, rather than formal authority or position

• i.e., political candidates often have referent power over his or her supporters

Rational Persuasion

An influence tactic where someone uses logical arguments, facts, data, and examples to convince others that a proposed course of action or idea is the most logical and appropriate choice

Inspirational Appeals

An influence tactic that revolves around the ability to connect, inspire, and move people towards a common goal through the power of emotional connection

Consultation

An influence tactic that involves asking others for their input and support to help plan an activity or change; this can increase buy-in by making people feel their opinions are valued and give them a sense of control and autonomy

Ingratiation

An influence tactic that involves making oneself more likeable to an individual to gain their approval, favour, or advantage; this is often achieved through deliberate behaviours such as flattery, complimenting others, agreeing with their opinions, and performing favours for them

Exchange

An influence tactic that involves offering something of value in exchange for something that you want or need; this often involves negotiating, bargaining, and trades

Coalition Tactics

An influence tactic that involves a group of people working together to persuade others, often by creating alliances or building consensus; this can involve a leader enlisting supporters to back a request, or a group of peers forming a united front to influence a decision

Pressure

An influence tactic that uses demands, threats, frequent checking, and persistent reminders to force compliance, but can often be counterproductive, leading to short-term compliance by causing resentment and resistance

Trait Leadership Theory

• The idea that leaders are born, not made; proposes that effective leaders possess certain innate, inherited personality traits that distinguish them from non-leaders

• Widely rebutted for emphasizing inborn qualities over situational factors and development

Behavioural Leadership Theory

• Proposes that leaders are made, not born

• Effective leadership is based on a set of observable, learnable behaviours rather than innate traits

• Emphasizes what leaders do and suggests that by studying and adopting specific behaviours, anyone can become a more effective leader

• Can manifest in two different ways: concern for people (people focused) and concern for production (task focused)

• 3 Styles: Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez-faire (Delegative)

Autocratic Leadership

• A type of leadership derived from Behavioural Leadership Theory

• Characterized by individual control over all decisions and little or no input from followers; defines a clear hierarchy, rules, and focuses on obedience and execution

• Effective in high-risk or high-pressure situations requiring quick, centralized decisions

Democratic (Participative) Leadership

• A type of leadership derived from Behavioural Leadership Theory

• Followers are actively involved in the decision-making process; the leader solicits their opinions and feedback, fostering collaboration, creativity, and a sense of ownership over goals

Laissez-aire (Delegative) Leadership

• A type of leadership derived from Behavioural Leadership Theory

• A “hands-off” approach to leadership where leaders delegate tasks, encourage autonomy, and provide minimal supervision, allowing team members to make their own decisions and solve problems independently

Situational Leadership Theory

• Matches the leader’s behaviours and follower’s skills; there is no one best way of leading

• Involves 4 main leadership styles

Situational Leadership Theory — 4 Main Leadership Styles

• Evolves based on the experience and skills of the followers involved; when followers become more “mature” during the process, the leader’s leadership style evolves and changes

• Telling, Selling, Participating, Delegating

Situational Leadership Theory — Telling

• Leader tells the followers what to do

• Style is used when followers have “low maturity” or when they have less experience or skills

Situational Leadership Theory — Selling

• The leader tells and provides information to the followers

• Style is used when followers have “medium maturity”; they are more experienced and skilled and the leader can provide information as they make decisions

Situational Leadership Theory — Participating

• The leader gets the followers involved

• Style is used when followers have “medium maturity”; they have the experience, skills, and rapport between one another and the leader starts asking followers for input

Situational Leadership Theory — Delegating

• The leader lets the followers make decisions

• Style is used when followers have “high maturity”; they have the experience, skills, and rapport between one another and no longer need the leader to provide information or tell them what to do

Transformational Leadership Theory

• Leaders motivate and encourage followers through emotional connection and influence their followers through their behaviours

• Manifests into 4 different behaviours: Intellectual Stimulation, Inspirational Motivation, Individualized Consideration, and Idealized Influence

Intellectual Stimulation: Encourage creativity

• A type of leadership derived from Transformational Leadership Theory

• Leaders encourage creativity, innovation, and critical thinking in their followers

• Leaders challenge assumptions, inspire new ideas, and foster a culture of curiosity and learning by supporting followers’ efforts to solve problems in different ways

Inspirational Motivation: Vision

• A type of leadership derived from Transformational Leadership Theory

• A leader articulates a compelling vision to inspire and motivate their team beyond expectations by providing purpose and meaning

• Leaders communicate a clear vision with confidence and enthusiasm, set high standards, and empower their followers

Individualized Consideration: Support

• A type of leadership derived from Transformational Leadership Theory

• Leaders act as mentors, coaches, or guides for the followers, focusing on the unique needs, strengths, and motivations of each individual team member

• This involves active listening, showing empathy, and providing personalized support and development opportunities

Idealized Influence: Role Model

• A type of leadership derived from Transformational Leadership Theory

• A leader is a role model for their followers. They demonstrate high ethical standards, integrity, and confidence

• This behaviour inspires followers to trust, respect, and emulate the leader, and puts the organization’s vision ahead of their own self-interest

Servant Leadership Theory

• The leader prioritizes the needs of their followers above their own personal goals, focusing on empowering and fostering the growth of others to drive collective success

• Involves several core principles: Listening, Empathy, Healing, Awareness, and Persuasion

Groups

• Two or more people (two people are usually called a dyad)

• Has to involve interaction and influence; the people in the group are influenced by each other

• Two types: Participant (engage in group) and Functional (achieve goal)

Group Dynamics

• Interaction between individuals in a group setting; the way people interact

• Involves dynamics between individuals and dynamics within the group itself

Group Cohesion

Commitment; the amount of commitment that individuals within the group have to each other and to the group, and also the commitment that they have towards the group’s shared goals

Group Morale

Feelings; how the group feels throughout the process of group work — ideally, individuals have high morale and feel good about the process

Group Norms: Primacy

• Early behaviours established in the group

• i.e., on the first day of classes, people choose seats and tend to stay in those seats throughout the entire semester, becoming the norm — thus, everyone has a vague idea on where to sit

Group Norms: Explicit

• Stated norms

• i.e., in order to participate in a group discussion, a professor explicitly states that they want individuals to raise their hands

Group Norms: Critical Event

• Shows what is or is not appropriate

• i.e., a professor reprimands a student for not adhering to group norms such as raising their hand first in order to participate in a group discussion

Group Norms: Carry Over

• A norm that was learned somewhere else

• i.e., you sit in the same spot of area you sat in a classroom from last semester

Group Member Contributions

• Goal-oriented behaviours: Help group

• Maintenance behaviours: Focus on relationships

• Individual-oriented behaviours: Own needs first

Why People Join Groups

• Security

• Status

• Affiliation

• Self-esteem

• Goal achievement

• Learn something new

• Foster a sense of belonging or connection

Roles in a Group

• Individual roles

• Task-related roles

• Maintenance roles

• Procedural roles

• Self-centred roles

Individual Roles in a Group

• Social specialist — shows support

• Stars — active involvement

• Technical specialists — focused on task

• Under-chosen — uncommitted to the group

Task-Related Roles in a Group

• Information or opinion givers

• Information or opinion seekers

• Analyzers

Maintenance Roles

• Supporters — encourages

• Tension relievers — relieves stress

• Harmonizers — deals with conflict

• Interpreters — help members understand each other

Procedural Roles

• Expediters — move forward

• Recorders — track info

• Gatekeepers — manage conversation

Self-centred Roles

• Aggressors — criticize others

• Jokers — clown around

• Withdrawers — don’t participate

• Monopolizes — dominate

Stages of Group Development

• Forming

• Storming

• Norming

• Performing

• Adjourning

Stages of Group Development: Forming

• The group first comes together; may involve feelings of stress of anxiety; individuals may make judgments of themselves and one another

• Strategies to help Forming stage: Introduce yourselves, incorporate icebreakers and team building exercises, get to know each other; leader or group may outline group norms and type of environment that members want to participate in; establish boundaries

Stages of Group Development: Storming

• Possible conflict; struggle for place in a group; can involve feelings of anxiety

• Strategies to help Storming stage: Ensure that communication stays open and people feel free to voice their opinions or concerns; establish or reiterate boundaries; deal with and resolve conflict — may not solve the issue right away but help the group navigate the conflict

Stages of Group Development: Norming

• Building group cohesion; a leader may emerge and a commitment to the group and shared goals may forms— roles become more specified within the group

• Strategies to help Norming phase: Communicate with one another; establish meeting times and outline goals/tasks clearly; ensure that roles and responsibilities are established (leader may assign them)

Stages of Group Development: Performing

• The group is focused and on task; involves teamwork, and the leader is able to step back but also supports and encourages the team

Stages of Group Development: Adjourning

• The group has come to an end and breaking up; could involve conflict

• Strategies to help Adjourning stage: Reflect on how the group went and what you would do differently or similarly in the future; allow opportunities for group reflection and ask members of the group for feedback on one another and on the group as a whole

BOPPPS

• Acronym for how to plan an effective class

• B: Bridge

• O: Objectives

• P: Pre-Assessment

• P: Participatory Learning

• P: Post-Assessment

• S: Summary

BOPPPS — B

• Bridge

• Involves connecting the participants to what they are learning or what you are leading them in that day (i.e., sharing why the topic is important or where they can apply the topic)

BOPPPS — O

• Objectives

• Outline objective(s) that lets the participants know what they will be able to do after the lesson or as a result of being in that lesson

BOPPPS — P (1)

• Pre-Assessment

• Find out what the participants already know about the topic or lesson; confirm how many participants already know the topic, if any, before moving on

BOPPPS — P (2)

• Participatory Learning

• The “meat” of your information where you are delivering the material and teaching that lesson or skill

• Key is to have learners actively participating and demonstrating the skill or what they are learning from the lesson 

BOPPPS — P (3)

• Post-Assessment

• Material of the lesson has been delivered; figure out whether or not the participants have actually learned the skill or the lesson

• Ideas can be shared in a discussion, or you could assess them using a quiz or test

BOPPPS — S

• Summary

• Tie everything together; restate key points, revisit the objectives, and connect the lesson to a future lesson if it is applicable

Drivers

• Leaders who emphasize action and directing

• Results-driven and assertive, with a strong focus on achieving goals and a direct communication approach

• Often take charge; can be perceived as demanding and potentially impatient with those who don’t meet their high expectations

• State their opinions freely, and are more cool and collected when it comes to their emotions

Analysts and Architects

• Leaders who emphasize meaning and conceptual functions

• Characterized by being logical, deliberate, and strategic; values observation and analysis

• A preference for making fact-based, well-informed decisions, and the ability to develop creative, long-term solutions. However, they can sometimes be slow to make decisions due to their need for extensive information or become overly focused on the details

• Hesitate to state their opinions; more cool and collected when it comes to their emotions

Relationship Masters

• Leaders who emphasize caring

• Characterized by a relationship-oriented leadership style, prioritizing team members’ well-being, fostering strong relationships, and building a supportive community

• Excel at building rapport and consensus but sometimes let tasks fall behind or struggle to take unpopular stances that could risk a relationship

• Hesitate to state their opinions, but emotionally more hotheaded and feel emotions more deeply

Spontaneous Motivators

• Leaders who emphasize emotional stimulation

• Characterized by being energetic and voicing their opinions and passion freely; great at motivating people as they possess a sense of mission or vision

• Have a knack for inspiring their team, but they can sometimes struggle with objectivity and become emotionally tied to their own perspectives

• State their opinions freely, but emotionally more hotheaded and feel emotions more deeply

Conflict

• “The interaction of interdependent people who perceive incompatible goals and interference from each other in achieving those goals”

• Expressed struggle/disagreement (both parties must be aware that there is a disagreement or conflict between them)

• Interdependence

• Interference from the other party/opposition

Conflict Behaviour: Non-assertive

Individual does not express thoughts or feelings (Avoidance, Accommodation)

Conflict Behaviour: Direct Aggression

Using force — involves criticism, threatening, etc.

Conflict Behaviour: Passive Aggression

Individual back handily and aggressively expresses their issue or problem (i.e., sarcasm, cracking a joke, etc.)

Conflict Behaviour: Indirect Communication

Individual expresses issue or problem in a roundabout way

Conflict Behaviour: Assertive

Individual expresses needs, issues, problems clearly and without judgment

Conflict Resolution: Competing

• I Win, You Lose

• One gets what they want, the other doesn’t

Conflict Resolution: Avoiding

• I Lose, You Lose

• Nobody gets what they want

Conflict Resolution: Accommodating

• I Lose, You Win

• I don’t get what I want, but the other person gets what they want

Conflict Resolution: Compromise

• I Win and Lose, You Win and Lose

• Everybody gets something but not everything

Conflict Resolution: Collaborating

• I Win, You Win

• Everybody gets what they want

Conflict Resolution Model 1

1. Define conflict

2. Examine possible solutions

3. Test a solution (if it doesn’t work, go back to the other possible solutions)

4. Evaluate the solution

5. Accept or reject the solution

Conflict Resolution Model 2: E.A.R

• Empathy: try to understand their perspective; “I can tell that you are really frustrated”

• Attention: give the other person your full attention; “Tell me more”

• Respect: give the other person respect; “I respect your commitment”

Conflict Resolution Model 2 — B.I.F.F

• Brief

• Informative

  • Focus on information

• Friendly

  • E.A.R

• Firm

  • Repeat and close

Conflict Resolution Model 4: 5 Steps

• Pause; take a breath, give yourself time to think and calm down

• Your Turn; you get a chance to explain your perspective

• My Turn; I get a chance to explain my perspective

• Mutual Planning; we plan a solution together

• Follow Through; we implement that solution

Conflict Resolution Model 4: Updated (5 R’s)

• Reframing: conflict is normal; be mindful of the relationship; look for a productive solution

• Recognize the core issue; emotional responses; conflict styles

• Rehearse the conversation; know how to enter the conversation and be prepared for the possible responses you might get

• Respond: don’t react, but don’t delay, be proactive; use effective communication tools

• Reflect: before moving on, ask was I mindful? Did I respond effectively? What did I learn?

Conflict Resolution Model 5: V.O.S.P

• Vent: share what is making you mad, frustrated, and how you are feeling

• Ownership: think about your role in the conflict; both sides share

• Shoes: put yourself in the other person’s shoes and try to understand their perspective

• Plan: together, try to come up with a plan moving forward

Conflict Resolution Model — CNR

• Complaint: what is the issue or complaint?

• Need: what do you need?

• Request: what are you asking from the other person

Conflict Resolution Model — HERO

• Hear concerns/problems

• Emphasizes the problem

• Repeats the problem back

• Offers solution

Negative Aspects of Conflict

• Increased negative regard for the opponent

• Depletion of energy

• Isolation from others

• Increased costs; decreased rewards

Unproductive Conflict Strategies

• Avoidance

• Force

• Defensiveness

• Blame

• Silence

• Hitting below the belt

• Aggressiveness