Adult and Adolescent Development Midterm Study Guide

bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development

a person develops within complex systems of relationships affected by multiple levels of surrounding environment

• microsystem

• mesosystem

• exosystem

• macrosystem

• chronosystem - dyanmic, everchanging nature of a persons environment

longitudinal research designs - strengths and weaknesses

strengths

• permits study of common patterns and individual differences, and relationships between early and later events and behaviors

• you look at one group over time

limitations

• participant dropout

• practice effects

• cohort effects

cross - sectional research designs - strengths and weaknesses

strengths

• more efficient than longitudinal design, not plagued by problems such as participants dropout and practice effects

• you look at a bunch of different groups in a single point in time

limitations

• does not permit study of individual developmental trends

• cohort effects

sequential research designs - strengths and weaknesses

strengths

• permits longitudinal and cross sectional comparisons, also reveals cohort effects and tracks age-related changed efficiently

• you look at a bunch of different groups over a period of time

limitations

• may have the same problems as longitudinal and cross sectional strategies, but design itself helps identify difficulties

rights of adolescent & adult research participants

• protection from harm

• informed consent

• privacy

• knowledge of results

• beneficial treatments

set differences in adolescent body growth - boys

• growth spurt - starts at age 12 ½

• proportions - shoulders broaden, longer legs

• muscle fat makeup - gain more muscle, aerobic efficiency

set differences in adolescent body growth - girls

• growth spurt - starts age 10

• proportions - hips broaden

• muscle fat makeup - add more fat

primary sexual characteristics

• maturation of reproductive organs

  • girls: menarche

  • boys: spermarche

secondary sexual characteristics

• other visible changes signaling sexual maturity

• girls: breasts

• boys: facial hair, voice change

• both: underarm and pubic hair

adolescent brain development

• expansion of synaptic connections = gains in reasoning, problem solving, decision making

• cognitive control network still developing = inhibition, planning, delay of gratification not fully mature

• changes in emotional/social network result in self-regulation difficulties

  • increases reactivity to stress, pleasure, and social stimuli

  • unchecked drive for novelty leads to sensation seeking

consequences of pubertal timing - girls

• early maturing

  • unpopular, withdrawn, low in confidence

  • less positive body image

  • more deviant behavior

  • at risk for lasting difficulties

• late maturing

  • popular

  • sociable, school leaders

  • positive body image

consequences of pubertal timing - boys

• early maturing

  • popular, athletic stars

  • more positive body image

  • viewed as well adjusted but report psychological stress and depressed mood

  • more deviant behavior

• late maturing

  • transient emotional difficulties

nutrition in adolescence

• nutritional requirements increase

• poor diets are common

• frequency of family meals associated with healthier diets

eating disorders

• anorexia nervosa

• bulimia nervosa

• binge eating disorder

anorexia nervosa

• starve self due to fear of getting fat

• severe malnutrition, physical complications, possible death

• unrealistic standards for self

• high expectations for appearance

bulimia nervosa

• binge eating followed by compensatory efforts to avoid weight gain

• deliberate vomiting or purging with laxatives

• excessive exercise or fasting

• experience depression, guilt, suicidal thoughts

• impulsive, sensation seeking tendencies

binge eating disorder

• regular binging without compensatory purging; typically leads to overweight and obesity

• distress and suicide

• treatments

  • anti anxiety, antidepressant, appetite control meds

characteristics of adolescents who engage in early sexual activity

personal

• early pubertal timing

• childhood impulsivity

• weak sense of control over life events

family

• economically disadvantaged

• disrupted parent child communication

peer

• sexually active friends

• alcohol and drug use, delinquency

educational

• poor school performance

• lower educational aspirations

sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

• rates rising: affect 1/5 sexually active teens

  • females are more easily infected

  • can happen through oral sex

  • at greatest risk: low SES teens

• can lead to sterility and life-threatening complications

• AIDS most serious

• teens are poorly informed about this

adolescent substance use and abuse

severe concerns

• one time heavy use impairs judgement; risks injury and death

• addictive nature of substances can lead to abuse

erikson - identity vs role confusion

identity

• defining who you are, values, direction in life

role confusion

• earlier psychosocial conflicts not resolves, lack of direction and self definition, societal restrictions

adolescent changes in self esteem

new dimensions

• romantic appeal

• close friends

• job competence

rises for most young people

• parental style and teacher encouragement affect level and stability of self esteem

identity achieved

• info gathering style

• higher self esteem: feels more control of life

• exception: exploration that is ruminative

• high exploration, high commitment

foreclosure

• commitment offers security and satisfaction

• dogmatic, inflexible style

• internalizes others’ values and beliefs

• depends on others for self esteem; fear rejection

• low exploration, high commitment

long term diffusion

• diffuse avoidant style

• avoids dealing with personal decisions and problems

• time management and academic difficulties

• low self esteem

• prone to depression

• low exploration, low commitment

kohlbergs theory of moral development

• presented between hypothetical dilemmas involving conflict between two moral values: not stealing vs saving a dying person

• what determines moral maturity

• what is their moral understanding promoted by?

benefits of adolescent friendships

• opportunities to explore the self

• opps to deeply understand another

• foundation for future intimate relationships

• helps manage stress

• greater empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior

• improved attitudes towards and involvement in school

dating in adolescence

• mixed sex cliques prepare teenagers for dating

• cultural expectations determine when dating begins

• dating goals change with age

  • early ado: recreation, peer status

  • late ado: intimacy, compatibility, social support

factors influencing dating relationships in adolescence

• parents and friends

• security of attachment

• parents’ marital interactions and conflict resolution

depression in adolescence

• moderately heritable

• hormonal changes of puberty: estrogen (girls)

• gender typed coping styles and greater coruminatlon in girls

• parental depression = maladaptive parenting

• genetic and hormonal risk factors combine with stressful experiences

adolescent suicide

• suicide rate jumps sharply at adolescence

• related factors

  • boys are more at risk

  • increase in AA and NA boys

  • sexual orientation

  • family environment

  • triggering life events

delinquency in adolescence

• rises over adolescence, declines in early twenties

• related factors:

  • SES, ethnicity

  • gender, boys more likely to commit violent crimes

  • difficult temperament

  • peer rejection

  • lack of supervision

two routes to adolescent delinquency

early onset: begins in childhood

• biological risks and inept parenting

late onset: begins around puberty

• peer influences

• antisocial behavior

early adulthood milestones

• leaving home

• completing education

• beginning work full time

• economic independence

• long term intimate relationship

• starting a family

cardiovascular and respiratory systems changes - heart

• few resting changes, reduced performance under stressful exercise

• disease declining due to better lifestyle and earlier medical intervention

cardiovascular and respiratory systems changes - lungs

• max vital capacity declines after age 25

• connective tissue stiffens with age, making breathing harder with age

reproductive capacity - women

• ideal during twenties; declines with age

• fertility risks for women

  • problem jumps sharply at 34-44 years

  • reduced number, quality of ova

reproductive capacity - men

• problems gradual, starting at age 35

• decreased sperm volume

• increased percentage of abnormal sperm

leading causes of death in US ages 25-44

• unintentional injury is the leading cause in men and women

• homicide is higher in men and lower in women

benefits of exercise

• reduced fat, builds muscle

• boosts immune system, resistance to disease and illness

• promotes cardiovascular functioning

• reduces anxiety and depression; improves mood

• promotes self esteem and ability to cope with stress

alcohol abuse in early adulthood

• 9% of men, 5% women are heavy drinkers

  • college students drink more heavily

• women: often in response to stress

• men: to enhance social situations

• treatment is difficult

heterosexual attitudes and behavior

• nearly all have had intercourse by age 25

• want emotional commitment

• people tend to seek out similar partners

• partners in committed relationships have sex more frequently

• college years = “hookups”

sexual coercion - perpetrator characteristics

• manipulative

• approve of violence against women

• accept rape myths

• childhood sexual abuse

• sexual promiscuity in adolescence

sexual coercion - cultural forces

• men taught to be dominant, competitive

• women taught to be submissive

• acceptance of violence

dropping out of college

• US rate: 42% have no earned degrees at four-year schools six years after enrolling

  • motivation, study skills, dependence on parents

  • financial problems

  • low SES

• inadequate institutional support services

religion in emerging adulthood

• religious affiliation declines: more than one third of US 18-29 year olds are unaffiliated with a particular faith

• remains more important to young americans than others

• individualized faith!! weaving together diverse traditions

erikson - intimacy vs isolation

intimacy

• making permanent commitment to intimate partner

• giving some some independence, redefining identity

• fosters favorable relationships with others

isolation

• hesitant to form close ties

• fear of losing identity: rejecting differences, threatened by closeness

**successful resolution prepares individual for middle adulthood and generativity

steinbergs triangular theory of love

values shift in emphasis as relationships develop

• passionate love: sexual attraction

• compassionate love: warm, trusting affect

• consumate love: concern for the others well being

passion gradually fades while intimacy and commitment strengthen

• communication, constructive conflict resolution, predicts relationship maintenance

decision to have children

early adult transition: dream guides decision making

• men: career achievements

• women: “split dreams” between career and marriage

• mentor

age 30 transition

• men “settle down”

• women unsettled: occupational and relationship commitments

singlehood

• more single adults: marrying later, not at all, divorcing

• gender differences

  • women are more likely to stay single

  • highly educated women and less well educated men more likely to be single after 30

• stressful periods in the early and mid thirties

  • biological clock pressures for women

  • friends are married

cohabitation

• increase in umarried, sexually intimate couples living together

• US attitudes toward cohabitation less positive than in western europe

  • US: cohabitating before engagement more likely to divorce

  • WE: nearly as committed as married people

• same sex cohabiters report strong commitment

lesbian and gay parents

• adopt children or assisted reproduction

• children do not differ from peers cognitively, socially

• may build “families of support”

• stigma is a major concern

identity moratorium

high exploration, low commitment