Unit 3C

Learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information of behaviors.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

Respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

Cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

the initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is linked with an unconditioned stimulus so the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new neutral stimulus to create a second conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

Generalization

the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal the unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior becomes more likely with reinforcement or less likely with punishment.

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and those followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber

a Skinner’s box containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain reinforcement while behavior is recorded.

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Shaping

guiding behavior toward a desired behavior through successive approximations and reinforcement.

Discriminative Stimulus

a stimulus that signals that a response will be reinforced.

Positive reinforcement

adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Primary reinforcer

a stimulus that satisfies a basic biological need and is inherently rewarding.

Conditioned reinforcer

a learned stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer.

Reinforcement schedule

a plan that determines when and how often reinforcement is delivered.

Continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcement given every time the behavior occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcement given only occasionally.

Fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

reinforcement after a random number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement for the first response after a fixed amount of time.

Variable-interval schedule

reinforcement for the first response after a random amount of time.

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that follows it.

Positive punishment

adding an aversive stimulus to reduce a behavior.

Negative punishment

removing a desirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.

Instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Cognitive Map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight Learning

solving problems through sudden understanding rather than step-by-step strategies.

Observational Learning

learning by observing others.

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Mirror neurons

neurons that fire when performing an action or observing another perform the same action, enabling imitation and empathy.

Prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behaviors.

Antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behaviors.