memory unit ap psychology 2025

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future, such as taking one’s medicine later

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

ionic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

method of loci

a mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect)

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

autobiographical memory

a person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life, including episodic and semantic memory or both

infantile amnesia

the commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood

context-dependent memory

putting oneself back in the context where one experienced something earlier that primes one’s memory retrieval

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

forgetting curve

“the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time”; a graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the experience of attempting to retrieve from memory a specific name or word but not being able to do so

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

imagination inflation

reporting richer details of one’s false memories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically