Key Concepts in Cultural Anthropology: Definitions and Theories

Culture

the shared beliefs, practices, values, symbols, and material objects that a society or group uses to define its way of life (Franz Boas)

Ethnography

a qualitative research method that involves the researcher going into a natural social setting to systematically observe, document, and analyze social behavior (Bronislaw Malinowski)

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture is superior to others and the practice of judging other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own group (Franz Boas)

Evolution (social)

the gradual development of societies and social structures over time (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Fieldwork

a qualitative research method where a researcher goes into a natural social setting to systematically observe, document, and analyze social behavior (Franz Boas / Bronislaw Malinowski)

Cultural relativism

the principle that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood within the context of their own culture (Franz Boas)

Organic solidarity

social cohesion based on the interdependence that arises from the specialization of work in modern, industrial societies (Émile Durkheim)

Mechanical solidarity

describes social cohesion in simple societies where people bond through sameness (Émile Durkheim)

Bias

the tendency to show a favorable or unfavorable preference for an object, event, or person (general)

Facework

refers to the social actions people use to maintain their public self-image or "face" during social interactions (Erving Goffman)

Polygamy

the practice of having more than one spouse at the same time (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Endogamy

the practice of marrying within a specific social group, such as one's own ethnic, religious, caste, or class group (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Agency

the capacity of individuals to act independently and make choices that shape their lives and the social structures around them (Max Weber)

Power

the ability to exercise one's will over others (Max Weber)

Worldview

the way individuals perceive and interpret the world around them (Max Weber)

Taboo

the prohibition of an action based on the belief that such behaviour is either too sacred and consecrated (Mary Douglas)

Ritual

repetitive behaviors performed by social groups that have important social, psychological, and symbolic dimensions (Arnold van Gennep / Marcel Mauss)

Magic

a religious action which is assumed to be automatically effective, whether the goal is empirical or non-empirical (Marcel Mauss)

Manifest function

the intended and recognized consequence of a social pattern, institution, or action (Émile Durkheim)

Latent function

the unrecognized and unintended consequence of a social institution, structure, or action (Émile Durkheim)

Homeostatic equilibrium

a state of equilibrium within a group (Émile Durkheim)

White privilege

the advantages that white people experience because of their race (Peggy McIntosh)

Panopticism

a mode of social control in which individuals begin to police themselves due to constant surveillance, thus shaping disciplined, docile and productive bodies (Michel Foucault)

Liminality

a state of being in-between two social structures (Arnold van Gennep)

Subsistence

the means by which a society satisfies its basic needs for survival (general)

Status

a person's rank or position in a particular context (Max Weber)

Norms

rules or expectations that are socially enforced (Émile Durkheim)

Descent

a cultural system for tracing kinship and inheritance through a particular line (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Sex

biological characteristics (chromosomes, hormones, reproductive anatomy) that categorize people as male, female, or intersex (general)

Gender

socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with masculinity, femininity, or other identities (general)

Participant observation

a research method in which the researcher immerses themselves in a community to observe and participate in daily life (Bronislaw Malinowski)

Globalization

the increasing interconnectedness of people, economies, cultures, and information across the world (general)

Brideprice / bridewealth

payment from the groom’s family to the bride’s family as part of marriage arrangements (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Stigma

a socially discrediting attribute that leads others to view a person or group as inferior or deviant (Erving Goffman)

Potlatch

a ceremonial feast among Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest involving gift-giving and redistribution of wealth (Franz Boas)

Race

a socially constructed classification of people based on perceived physical differences rather than biological reality (Franz Boas)

Ethnicity

shared cultural traits such as language, ancestry, customs, or traditions (Franz Boas)

Nation

a group of people with shared identity, culture, history, or territory (Max Weber)

Nationalism

belief in or support for the self-governance, unity, and identity of a nation (Max Weber)

Class

a system of social ranking based on economic resources, occupation, and lifestyle (Karl Marx)

Caste

a rigid social hierarchy in which individuals are born into ranked groups with limited mobility (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Interviews

a research method involving direct questioning of participants to gather information or perspectives (general)

Cultural appropriation

when members of a dominant group take or use elements of a minority culture without permission, respect, or understanding (general)

Sociological imagination

the ability to see the connection between personal experiences and larger social forces (C. Wright Mills)

Cultural capital

non-financial social assets — like education, language, tastes — that provide social advantages (Pierre Bourdieu)

Dowry

wealth or property transferred from the bride’s family to the groom or couple at marriage (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Exogamy

marriage outside one’s social group, kin group, caste, or community (Lewis Henry Morgan)

Reciprocity

the exchange of goods, services, or favors in ways governed by cultural norms (Marcel Mauss)

Social constructs

the idea that aspects of life (such as gender, race, norms) are created and maintained by society (general)

Material culture

physical objects created or used by a society, such as tools, clothing, or buildings (general)

Belief systems (religion, ideology)

organized sets of ideas that explain the world and guide behavior (general)

Materiality

how physical objects, spaces, and technologies shape human experience and social life (Karl Marx)

Social interaction and self creation

the process by which individuals form identity and understanding of self through interactions with others (Erving Goffman)