Sociology CRIME AND DEVIANCE - INTRODUCTION

What is a crime?

A crime is the breaking of formal, written laws and may result in formal sanctions such as police cautions, court proceedings, or prison.

What is deviance?

Deviance is behaviour that breaks informal, unwritten social norms accepted by the majority of society and is usually dealt with through informal sanctions.

What are informal sanctions?

Informal sanctions include shame, gossip, exclusion, or social disapproval rather than legal punishment.

Why is crime considered a relative concept?

Crime is relative because laws differ between societies and change over time, meaning what is criminal in one society may not be in another.

Explain the relationship between crime and deviance.

Most crimes are deviant, but not all deviant acts are crimes; some acts are criminal but not always seen as deviant.

Give an example of an act that is criminal but not always deviant.

Parking on double yellow lines or breaking the law to protect the environment.

Give an example of an act that is both criminal and deviant.

Murder.

What does it mean to say crime and deviance are socially constructed?

It means that what is considered criminal or deviant depends on social values, norms, and interpretations rather than being fixed or universal.

What does it mean to say that crime and deviance are relative to time?

It means that what is considered criminal or deviant changes over different historical periods. Laws and social norms shift over time, so an act may be acceptable in one era but criminal in another (e.g. homosexuality being illegal in the UK before 1967).

How does Foucault’s Discourse Theory help explain why crime is relative to time and place?

Foucault argues that powerful groups shape laws and knowledge through dominant discourses. This explains why acts like homosexuality or abortion were criminalised in some countries and time periods but legalised later as dominant ideas changed.

Why is crime and deviance relative to place?

Different societies have different laws and cultural norms. An act may be criminal or deviant in one country but legal or acceptable in another (e.g. age of consent laws, homosexuality being illegal in Saudi Arabia but legal in the UK).

How does Cicourel show that crime and deviance are relative to person?

Cicourel showed that a person’s age, status and social class affect how their behaviour is interpreted. He found that working-class youth were more likely to be labelled as criminal than middle-class youth for the same behaviour due to police stereotypes and expectations.

What does it mean to say crime and deviance are socially constructed?

It means that crime and deviance are defined by social norms, values and laws, not by the act itself — meanings change depending on context.

How does the example of a soldier illustrate the social construction of crime?

Killing in war may be socially praised and labelled heroic, while the same act in another context is labelled murder, showing definitions depend on social interpretation.

Which sociologist questions whether there is a real difference between a soldier and a murderer?

Howard Becker, who argues that deviance is the result of labelling rather than the act itself.

According to sociologists, which groups have the most power in defining crime and deviance?

Powerful institutions such as the police, courts and media, which label behaviours and individuals as criminal or deviant.

What is social order?

Social order is the general order or conformity to shared norms and values. Examples include students working in classrooms, people following rules on the street, and drivers adhering to traffic laws.

What is social control?

Social control is the process by which people are persuaded to obey rules and conform. It involves both informal and formal methods and ensures individuals follow societal norms.

What is informal social control?

Informal social control is carried out by agencies like the media, family, and peers. It is subtle, includes positive and negative sanctions, and encourages conformity without formal enforcement.

What is formal social control?

Formal social control is carried out by agencies specifically set up to control behavior, such as the police, courts, and army. It enforces rules with formal consequences for non-compliance.

What do homicide statistics in England and Wales show about gender differences in victimisation?

Men are more likely to be victims of homicide (64%) than women (36%), showing a clear gendered pattern.

How does age affect male homicide victimisation?

Male victims are most commonly aged 16–24, indicating that young men are at the highest risk.

How does age affect female homicide victimisation?

Female homicide victims are more commonly aged 25–34, meaning they tend to be slightly older than male victims.

How does intersectionality help explain patterns in homicide victimisation?

Intersectionality shows that gender and age interact — for example, young men face the highest risk, while women are less likely to be victims but at older ages.

What do the statistics show about gender differences in domestic violence victimisation?

Females are significantly more likely to experience domestic violence than males, with 7.3% of women reporting domestic abuse compared to 3.6% of men, showing clear gendered inequality.

How does age affect women’s risk of domestic violence?

Women aged 20–24 are the most likely to experience domestic abuse, making younger women statistically more vulnerable than older age groups.

How does social class influence women’s likelihood of experiencing domestic violence?

Women from lower-income households are far more likely to be victims: around 21% of women in households earning under £10,000, compared with just 4% of women in households earning £50,000+.

How does intersectionality help sociologists understand domestic violence patterns?

Intersectionality shows that gender, age, and social class interact, meaning young, working-class women face compounded risk, giving a deeper understanding than gender alone.

Which ethnic group had the lowest inter-racial victimisation rate in 2020? (Ethnicity)

White people, at 13%.

What is the difference between inter-racial and intra-racial crime? (

Inter-racial crime occurs between different ethnic groups, while intra-racial crime occurs within the same ethnic group.

According to Home Office figures, which ethnic group had the highest victimisation rate in 2020? (Ethnicity)

People of mixed ethnicity, with a 20% victimisation rate.

According to Home Office data, what proportion of gun murder victims and suspects were black, illustrating intra-racial crime? (Ethnicity)

One-third of gun murder victims and suspects were black.

Which ethnic group is most likely to be victims of crime across multiple social classes according to the data? (Ethnicity & Social Class)

Mixed ethnicity are most likely to be victims across multiple social classes, including managerial/professional roles and long-term unemployment.

How does social class affect victimisation rates within ethnic groups? (Ethnicity & Social Class)

Victimisation varies within ethnic groups depending on social class—for example, mixed ethnicities in managerial roles have higher rates than whites or blacks in similar roles, showing the importance of intersectionality.

How would Marxists interpret patterns of victimisation in society? (Ethnicity & Social Class)

Marxists argue that all proletariats are victims of crimes under capitalism, highlighting the role of economic class rather than ethnicity or age.

How would feminists interpret victimisation patterns, and how does it contrast with Marxist views? (Ethnicity & Social Class)

Feminists argue that patriarchal society victimises women in ways that intersect with other factors such as social class and ethnicity, contrasting with Marxists who focus on economic class alone.