Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1 & 3

Anatomy

is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. It means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study

Dissect, or cut apart and separate the parts of the body for study

meaning of the word anatomy

Structure of the body part and its function

Anatomy examines the relationship between this

Systemic anatomy and Regional Anatomy

2 basic approaches to the study of anatomy

Systemic Anatomy

is the study of the body by systems, such as cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems.

Regional Anatomy

is the study of the organization of the body by areas. Within each region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm. all systems are studied simultaneously.

Surface anatomy and Anatomical imaging

2 general ways to examine the internal structures of a living person

Surface Anatomy

is the study of external features such as bony projections, which serves as landmarks for locating deeper structures

Sternum

also called as the breastbone, it is used by health professionals as a landmark for listening to heart sounds.

Anatomical Imaging

involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create picture of internal structures, such as when determining if a bone is broke or a ligament is torn.

Physiology

is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things

Examining body’s response to stimuli and body’s maintenance of stable internal condition

2 major goals when studying physiology.

Human physiology

is the study of humans

Cellular physiology and Systematic physiology

Levels of studying physiology

Cellular physiology

focuses on processes inside cells such as the manufacturing of substances, including proteins

Systematic physiology

focuses on the functions of organ system

Chemical, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ systems, and Organism

The body can be studied at 6 structural levels

Chemical level

The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by their chemical makeup. This involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine into molecules.

Cell level

are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. When molecules combine it become this.

Organelles

structure inside cells that carry out particular functions, such as digestions and movement, for cell

Microbe

is any life form that can be only seen with a microscope (ex: bacteria, fungi, protozoa)

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

3 domains of living organism

Atom

simplest level of organization in the human body. It combine to form molecules.

Tissue level

Group of cell combine to form this, a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them. The characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the function of this.

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous Tissue

4 basic tissue types

Organ level

Different tissues combine to form this, is composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions.

Organ System Level

Multiple organs combine to form this, is a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of function and are therefore viewed as a unit.

Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive

11 Organ System

Organism Level

is any living things considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as bacterium, or trillions of cells, such as humans.

Human organism

is a network of organs systems that are mutually dependent upon one another.

Integumentary System

Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D.

Skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands

Integumentary system is consisted of

Bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints

Skeletal system is consisted of

Skeletal system

Provides protection and support, allows body movement, produces blood cells, and store minerals and adipose

Muscular system

produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat.

Muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons

Muscular system is consisted of these.

Nervous System

A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movement, physiology processes, and intellectual functions.

Brain, Spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

Nervous system consists of

Endocrine System

A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and other functions.

Glands

Endocrine system consist of

Pituitary gland

gland that secreted hormones

Cardiovascular System

Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune responses and the regulation of body temperature.

Heart, blood vessels, and blood

Cardiovascular system consist of

Lymphatic system

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract.

lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs

Lymphatic system consist of

Respiratory system

exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH.

Lungs and respiratory passages

Respiratory system consists of

Digestive system

performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorptions of nutrients, and elimination of wastes.

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory gland

Digestive system consist of

Urinary System

removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, Ion balance, and water balance.

Kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine

Urinary system consist of

Female Reproductive System

produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors.

Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

Female Reproductive system consist of

Male Reproductive System

produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors

Testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis

Male reproductive system consist of

Organization, Metabolism, Responsiveness, Growth,Development, Reproduction

6 characteristics of life

Organization

refers to the specific interrelationships among the individual parts of an organism, and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.

Metabolism

is the ability to use energy to perform other vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproductions. This refers to all of the chemical reactions taking place in the cells and internal environment of an organism.

Responsiveness

is an organism’s ability to sense changes in the external or internal environment and adjust to those changes.

Growth

refers to an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement in all or part of an organism, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells.

Development

includes the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death. Usually involves growth as well as differentiation.

Differentiation

is the sequence of changes in a cell’s structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state. These differentiated cells form tissues and organs

Reproduction

is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Formations of new organisms prevents extinction of species.

Homeostasis

is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body. As our bodies undergo their everyday processes, we are continuously exposed to new conditions.

Variables

changes in internal conditions is called this because their values are not constant. For example this include body temperature, body fluid volume, chemical content, and pH.

Narrow range

For our cells to function normally, all variables must be maintained within this range. To achieve and maintain homeostasis, the body must actively regulate response to changes in variables ensuring they are within this.

Normal range

This narrow range is referred as this. A long as body conditions remain within this, homeostais is maintained.

Set point

Another term for normal value, Homeostasic mechanisms normally maintain body conditions close to this.

Increase and decrease

Homeostasic mechanism are not able to maintain body conditions precisely at the set point. Rather, body conditions do this slightly around the set point.

98.6°F

average body temperature

Body’s network of organ system

helps to keep the body’s internal environment relatively constant.

Disease

can disrupt processes and disturb homeostasis in such as way that death could result.

Feedback Loops

Homeostasis is regulated by this. It allows for a process to be regulated by the outcome.

Negative feedback and Positive feedback

2 types of feedback loops

Negative feedback

increase of a body parameter, good feedback

Positive feedback

decrease of body parameter, bad feeback

Receptor, Control center, and Effector

3 components of feedback loops

Receptor

monitors the value of a variable by detecting changes

Control center

determines the set point for the variable and receives input from the receptor about the variable, for example: part of the brain

Effector

generates the response that adjust the value of a changed variable

Stimulus

A changed variable because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism

Negative feedback mechanisms

are more commonly involved in maintenance of homeostasis than are positive feedback mechanism.

Negative feedback

is when any deviations from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. In other words, the responses by the effector is stopped once the variable returns to its set point.

Maintenance of body temperature

One of the most familiar example of negative feedback mechanism. Normal body temperature is critical to our health because it allows molecules and enzymes to keep their normal shape so they can function optimally.

Thermoreceptors

receptors in the skin, monitors body temperature.

Hypothalamus

if a body temperature rises, the receptors send message to this, the control center

Control center

compares the value of the variables against the set point

Hallmark of Negative feeback

effectors stops their responses once the variables has returned to its set point. They do not produce an infinite response.

Positive feedback mechanism

occur when a responses to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater.

To increase

positive means

Thrombin

A chemical responsible for blood clot formation

Birth

example of normally occurring positive feedback

Hallmark of positive feedback

the effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed.

Foramen

is a Latin word for “hole”

Magnum

Latin word for “large”

Foramen Magnum

a large hole in the skull (through the spinal cord continues from the brain)

Anatomical position

refers to a person standing upright with the face directed forward, upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hand facing forward.

Supine

when a person is lying face upward

Prone

when lying face downward

Superior

means above