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The sclera and cornea
protect the eye
The pupil is an
opening that allows light to get inside
The iris is a
muscle that changes the size of the pupil
The lens is a
transparent flexible structure
The vitreous body is the
the clear gel that fills the space between the lens and the retina of the eyeball
The retina is the
layer at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors
The macula is the
region of the retina with the highest concentration of photoreceptors
How is light concerted to an action potential?
Activated photoreceptors release neurotransmitters to bipolar cells (neuron), which in turn synapses to another type of neurons called ganglion cells. The signal goes to the optic nerve which is then communicated to the visual cortex
The two types of photoreceptors located in the retina are
rods and cones
Photopigments are
light sensitive proteins which change shape when exposed to light and control how many neurotransmitters a photoreceptor releases
The photopigments in rods are specialized for
dim light
Cones provide
color vision
How many different types of cones are there in humans and what do they detect?
3 different cones that detect red, green, and blue light
Why do multicellular organisms need a circulatory system?
They can’t use diffusion to cycle waste, nutrients, and gases through the body because they have a larger surface area to volume ratio
In an open circulatory system
the blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels but is pumped into a cavity called a hemocoel and is called hemolymph because the blood mixes with the interstitial fluid
In an open circulatory system hemolymph circulates around the organs within the
body cavity and then reenters the heart through openings called ostia. This movement allows for gas and nutrient exchange.
An open circulatory system does not
use as much energy as a closed system to operate or to maintain; however, there is a trade-off with the amount of blood that can be moved to metabolically active organs and tissues that require high levels of oxygen
In a closed circulatory system
blood is contained inside blood vessels and circulates unidirectionally from the heart around the systemic circulatory route, then returns to the heart again
The circulatory system is an organ system composed of
the heart (pump), blood vessels, and blood
The circulatory system is
an extensive network that supplies the cells, tissues, and organs with oxygen and nutrients, and removes carbon dioxide and waste, which are byproducts of respiration
Blood is a
specialized type of connective tissue composed of plasma and cellular components
Plasma
water, electrolytes (ions), proteins, hormones, nutrients, gases and wastes
Cellular components
red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets
blood components can be separated by
hematocrit (centrifugation)
A hematocrit test measures the
proportion of red blood cells
Red blood cells are also called
erythrocytes
Red blood cells transport
oxygen and carbon dioxide
Red blood cells have no _________ and lack most __________
nucleus, organelles
RBCs are packed with
hemoglobin—-a protein which transports oxygen and some carbon dioxide
RBC production is controlled by a
hormone called erythropoietin (EPO)
The negative feedback loop that controls RBC production
Special cells in the kidney monitor oxygen availability
If oxygen levels are low these cells secrete EPO
EPO stimulates the maturation of RBC
Increase in RBC leads to an increase in oxygen availability, which in turn stops EPO production
Platelets are essential for
blood clotting
Platelets are formed from
megakaryocytes breaking in fragments
The three stages of hemostasis
vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation
Vascular spasm
constriction of blood vessels to reduce blood flow
Platelet plug formation
sealing of the ruptured blood vessel
Coagulation
blood changes from liquid to a gel forming a blood clot
Arteries carry blood away from the
heart under enormous pressure
Arteries are
thick walled and have three layers; they lack connective tissue, and the smooth muscle layer is thin
Arteries diverge into smaller vessels called
arterioles
Capillaries exchange
solutes and water with cells of the body
Precapillary sphincters are rings of
smooth muscle that regulate the flow of blood through capillary beds
Capillaries are microscopic
blood vessels that are thin walled (one layer) and porous; the walls consist of a leaky layer of epithelial cells, and the microscopic pores allow for fluids and some material to be exchanged through diffusion
Capillaries converge into smaller vessels called
venules
Veins return blood to the
heart and act as a blood reservoir
Veins have
three layers and are thin walled; they have a larger lumen than arteries and can be stretched
The human heart is surrounded by
a fibrous sac called pericardium
The four layers of the heart
epicardium, myocardium, endocardium, and the septum
The four chambers of the heart are split into
two atria and two ventricles
Blood flow
the right side of the heart (right atrium) accepts oxygen-depleted venous (from the vein/ vena cava) blood that has already circulated to body cells (muscles, digestive system, etc.)
blood is pumped out of the right side of the heart (right ventricle) through the pulmonary artery to the lungs
gas exchange takes place in the lungs; blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide
the left side of the heart (left atrium) receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs (travels through the pulmonary vein to the heart)
oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart is destined for body cells (leaves left ventricle through the aorta)
blood reaching the small intestine supplies oxygen and nutrients to intestinal cells and also picks up nutrients from digestion of food
The cardiac cycle is a complete cycle of events in the heart from
the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next heart beat
The cardiac cycle consists of a period of
relaxation (diastole) and contraction (atrial and ventricular systole)
Vertebrate hearts are classified as
multi-chambered
Fish have
two chambered hearts and use gills as a site of gas exchange
Amphibians and most reptiles have
three chambered hearts (1 ventricle and 2 atria)
Many simple organisms are capable of exchanging gas with the environment via
simple diffusion
The tracheal system in insects consists of
a series of epithelial tubes that function as a respiratory organ (spiracles → trachea → air sacs → tracheoles)
Cutaneous gas exchange is a form of
respiration where gas exchange occurs through the skin
Many vertebrates have both
cutaneous respiration and functional lungs
Gills are thin tissue filaments that are
highly branched and folded with many capillaries for gas exchange
Four types of respiration
tracheal system, cutaneous gas exchange (gills and skin), diffusion, and breathing/ inhalation that takes place in mammals (pulmonary ventilation)
Diffusion across the cell membrane is sufficient for supplying oxygen to the cell in
unicellular organisms
In order for diffusion to be a feasible means of providing oxygen to the cell
the rate of oxygen uptake must match the rate of diffusion across the membrane (cell can’t be too large/ thick bc diffusion wouldn’t be able to provide oxygen quickly enough to the inside of the cell)
In mammals pulmonary ventilation occurs via
inhalation (breathing)
Components of the upper respiratory tract
Nose, nasal passages, sinuses (nasal cavity)
Pharynx
Larynx
The nasal cavity and pharynx
Act as passageway for respiration
Filter larger foreign material from incoming air, inhaled microorganism are entrapped in mucus
Moisten and warm incoming air
Composed mostly of ciliated cells
Have resonating chambers for voice
The larynx (two important components)
Epiglottis: flexible flap of cartilage that routes air and food appropriately
Vocal chords: assist in sound production
Components of the lower respiratory tract
Trachea
Bronchi and bronchioles
Lungs
Alveoli
Trachea
Trachea transports air to and from lungs
Composed of a c-shaped ring of cartilage held together by connective tissue and smooth muscle
Lined with mucus secreting ciliated epithelium
Mucus traps foreign particles, bacteria, and other residues and cilia moves them up and out of the lungs
Cilia are located through the upper and lower respiratory tract
Bronchi and bronchioles
Trachea branches into two airways-- right and left bronchi
Bronchi contains ciliated epithelia (cilia), smooth muscle, cartilage
Bronchioles are the smallest branches (1 mm in diameter)
Lack cartilage
Bronchioles lack cilia
Bronchioles deliver air to tiny sacs called alveoli (singular alveolus)
Lungs
Composed of supportive tissue enclosing the bronchi, bronchioles, blood vessels, and alveoli
Each lung is enclosed in two layers of pleural membranes
Pleural cavity contains fluid that reduces friction as lungs move
Alveoli
Lungs receive deoxygenated blood from the heart through pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary capillaries allow blood to come into close proximity with air in alveoli (gas exchange)
Veins collect the oxygenated blood from alveolar capillaries and return it to the left side of the heart
Air enters and leaves the lungs through
inspiration and expiration (pressure driven)
Inspiration
diaphragm contracts and lowers
intercostal muscles contract/ expand chest wall outward (volume of thoracic cavity increases)
intrapleural pressure drops
lungs expand and air is draw into the airways
Expiration
diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax (thoracic cavity volume decreases)
intrapleural pressure returns to normal
lungs recoil and airways close; air passively exit the lungs
Steps for breathing
inspiration occurs as
air enters through the nasal cavity and is warmed to body temp/ humidified (must be humidified bc dry air can damage respiratory tract)
foreign material is filtered/ microorganisms are entrapped in mucus/ removed through cilia
air then passes to the pharynx and larynx and then to the trachea
trachea transports air to and from the lungs
trachea is branched into the right and left bronchi which delivers air to the lungs
bronchi branch into bronchioles
bronchioles deliver air to alveolar ducts
alveolar ducts have alveolar sacs which contain alveoli
gas exchange occurs in the alveoli
lungs receive deoxygenated blood via pulmonary arteries
pulmonary capillaries allow blood to come into close contact with with air in alveoli allowing for diffusion to occur (blood becomes oxygenated and releases co2 into alveoli
expiration moves co2 out of lungs
veins collect the oxygenated blood and return it to the left side of the heart
Gas exchange during respiration occurs primarily through
diffusion
During diffusion gas molecules move from a region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration
The air in the lungs has a higher concentration of
oxygen than that of oxygen-depleted blood and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide than blood; this allows for gas exchange between blood and air in the lungs
External respiration
lungs receive deoxygenated blood through pulmonary artery
branches into pulmonary capillaries → creates respiratory membrane with alveoli
as blood in pumped into the capillary network gas exchange occurs
some oxygen gets dissolved directly into the plasma, but most binds to hemoglobin in RBCs
pressure gradient between alveoli and blood in capillaries allows for gas exchange
partial pressure of oxygen in alveoli > partial pressure of oxygen in blood → diffuses down gradient
carbon dioxide gets released into the alveoli by blood since the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is > the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli
blood returns to the left side of the heart through pulmonary veins
carbon dioxide is exhaled
Internal respiration
gas exchange with body tissues
partial pressure of oxygen in tissues < partial pressure of oxygen in blood
oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin, diffuses from blood, crosses interstitial space and enter tissues
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in blood < partial pressure of carbon dioxide in tissues
carbon dioxide diffuses from tissues, crosses interstitial space and enters blood
carbon dioxide gets carried back to the lungs either dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or in its converted form
98% of oxygen carried in blood is bound to
hemoglobin in RBCs
2% of oxygen is dissolved in
plasma
70% of carbon dioxide is converted to and transported in
the plasma as bicarbonate (H+ is produced as a byproduct)
10% of carbon dioxide is dissolved in
plasma
20% of carbon dioxide binds to
hemoglobin for transport
Osmosis
the diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane
Concentration gradient for water
from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration
Concentration gradient for water in terms of solute
from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration
Osmolarity
describes the solution's total solute concentration-- water moves from the solution of lower osmolarity through the membrane towards the solution of higher osmolarity
Isotonic solution
osmolarity (concentration of solute) is the same inside and outside of the cell (in equilibrium)
Hypertonic solution
higher osmolarity (concentration of solute) outside the cell (cell shrinks)
Hypotonic solution
low osmolarity outside the cell (concentration of solute is lower outside the cell than inside the cell) (cell swells)
Osmoregulation
the process of maintenance of salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body's fluids, which are composed of water, plus electrolytes and non-electrolytes
Blood maintains an
isotonic environment
Kidneys
filter blood, removing waste and maintaining osmotic balance
Ureter
urine passes through the ureter to reach the bladder
Kidney protected by tough connective layer called the
renal fascia
Kidney’s layers
outer cortex, medulla in the middle, and renal pelvis in the region called the hilum
The cortex is granular due to the presence of
nephrons