13. Adolescence - Social and Personality Development

Rites of passage

Theories

______________- Absence of formal rites of passage lead to more risky behaviours as teens attempt to invent their own rites of passage

• What the rite looks like depends on the peer group and can be positive or negative

• Adolescents work to transition to adulthood, but adult guidance and support is important

Freud → Genital Stage (OAPLG)

Theories

____________- Focus is on emergence of romantic interest. Stage during which individuals reach psychosexual maturity

• Puberty reawakens sexual drive that was dormant during latency stage

• Primary task is to channel libido into healthy sexual relationship

Erik Erikson → Identity vs. Role Confusion

Theories

_________ - Agreed that achieving sexual maturity was important. Thought achievement of personal identity more critical task

• Identity

Identity

___________ - understanding of one’s unique characteristics and how they are manifested across ages, situations, and social roles

Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement

Theories

______________ - Research confirmed Erikson’s general conceptions of adolescent identity process

• Marcia proposed two parts to identity formation:

  1. Crisis

  2. Commitment

• Four identity statuses defined by degree of commitment to particular role or values and degree of crisis

Identity development

Identity

_________________ - Identity formation occurs later than Erikson and Marcia thought. Cognitive development strongly related— Identity statuses fluctuate during adolescence

• Quest for identity continues across lifespan

• Unique feature of adolescence: first time all key elements are present

• Adultification

Adultification

Identity development

____________ - child or adolescent prematurely takes on adult roles and responsibilities

• Risk factors: parental discord, cultural disruption, family economic hardship, caregiver trauma

• Consequences: range of psychosocial and mental health outcomes

Psychological self

Self-concept

_______________ - More focused on enduring internal characteristics. Self-definition becomes more abstract

• Cyclical relationship with Big Five personality traits

• Becomes more differentiated

• Begin to influence behaviour

• Academic self-concept

Academic self-concept

Self-concept → psychological self

_____________ - Comes from internal and external comparisons. Perceived competency in one area affects perceptions of abilities in other areas

• Social self-concepts also predicts behaviour

Self-esteem + gender role identity

Self-esteem

______________ - Influenced by: personal characteristics, relationships with others, school, lifestyle factors, achievements

Gender role identity = gender-related aspects of psychological self

• Understand that gender roles are social conventions

• Parental influence becomes increasingly strong

• Concept that were separate become integrated into conceptual framework

• Androgynous and masculine gender role identities are associated with higher self-esteem among boys and girls

• Sexism and patriarchy reduce wellness of feminine girls

Bem Sex-Inventory Index (BSRI)

	High Femininity	Low Femininity
High Masculinity	Androgynous	Masculine
Low Masculinity	Feminine	Undifferentiated

Ethnic identity

_______________ - sense of belonging to an ethnic group

• Can conflict with a social environment dominated by concerns of the majority

  • BIPOC teens must create an understanding of their multiple identities

• Phinney’s three stages of ethnic identity

• Ethnocultural identity

Phinney’s 3 Stages of Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity

1. Unexamined ethnic identity

2. Ethnic identity search

3. Ethnic identity achievement

Ethnocultural identity

Ethnic identity

_______________ - transmitted and acquired from society in which one is raised

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

_______________ - Founded on Piaget’s two stages. Measured moral reasoning through participant responses to moral dilemmas

• Three levels (each with two stages):

  • Preconventional

  • Conventional

  • Postconventional

Justification, not choice itself, determines stage

• Stages loosely correlated with age— Sequence is universal and hierarchical

• Social environment determines speed at which individuals progress

• Emergence of higher stages strongly influenced by formal education

1) Preconventional level

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

_______________ - first stage

1. Punishment and Obedience Orientation: Right or wrong is determined based on what is punished. Obedience is valued for its own sake; adults are obeyed because they have superior power

2. Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, & Exchange: Rules are followed when it is in the child/teen’s immediate interest. What is good is what brings pleasant results

2) Conventional level

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

________________ - second stage

3. Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity: Moral actions = those that live up to family/other significant group’s expectations. “Being good” becomes important for its own sake

4. Social System and Conscience (Law and Order): Moral actions are defined by larger social groups or society as a whole. Should fulfill duties that one has agreed to and, except in extreme cases, uphold laws

3) Postconventional level

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

________________ - third stage

5. Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights: Acting to achieve the “greatest good for the greatest number”. Understanding that most values are relative and laws are changeable, though rules should still be followed to preserve social order. There are some basic absolute values

6. Universal Ethical Principles: Follow self-chosen ethical principles to determine what is right. Developed through articulated, integrated, carefully thought-out, and consistently followed system of values and principles

Causes/consequences of moral development

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

_______________ - Cognitive development explains association between stages and age.

Kohlberg thought decline in egocentrism is most critical cognitive variable for moral reasoning

• Research supports relationship between role-taking and moral development

• Supportive social environment also necessary

• Parent’s ability to identify, understand, and respond to child’s less mature level of reasoning = critical to development of moral reasoning

Association with prosocial behaviour

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

_____________ - Cross-cultural research provides support for the universality of Kohlberg’s stages; some contend however that his approach was too narrow

• Researchers focused on the link between moral reasoning and moral emotions also criticize his approach as being too narrow

• Questioning of degree to which moral reasoning predicts moral behaviour

Moral development + antisocial behaviour

Moral development

_____________ - Adolescents who engage in serious forms of antisocial behaviour typically have low levels of moral reasoning

Teens who act aggressively typically lack empathy and are particularly vulnerable to situational factors that contribute to poor moral decision-making

• Criminality

• Youth Criminal Justice Act shifted focus to the young person’s actions

Criminality

Moral development and antisocial behaviour

_______________ - forms of antisocial behaviour that involve breaking the law

Conduct disorder

Moral development and antisocial behaviour

_____________ - may be diagnosed among children and youth who display a consistent pattern of antisocial behaviour

• Childhood-onset: more serious and persistent symptoms, directed by internal factors

• Adolescent-onset: more transitory, likely a reflection of peer-group processes or testing limits of authority

Risk factors for adolescent-onset conduct disorder

Moral development and antisocial behaviour → adolescent-onset conduct disorder

_______________ - Personality and social variables

• Personality: low agreeableness, low emotion regulation, high neuroticism, narcissism

• Social variables: insufficient parental monitoring, parents with histories of antisocial behaviour, unsupportive or non-intimate friendships, peer groups with drug and mild lawbreaking experimentation

Relationships w/ parents

_________________ - Conflict between establishing autonomy and maintaining sense of relatedness.

Rise in conflict— does not actually represent a major disruption in the quality of the relationship. Causes more distress to parents than to teen

• Attachment typically remains strong; biggest predictor of teen’s sense of well-being or happiness

• Teens who remain close with parents have better academic achievement, good peer relations, and are less likely to engage in antisocial behaviour or use drugs

Relationships w/ peers

_______________ - Wider range of acquaintances due to tech; however no associated increase in close friendships

Belief in importance of popularity and peer acceptance peaks during early adolescence— Quality of friendships become more important in later adolescence

• Friendship stability increases

• Teens tend to choose friends who share their social status

• Rate of social skills development influences friendship longevity

• Peer groups become relatively stable

Cliques

Changes in peer group structure

______________ - Four-to-six young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another

• Strongly cohesive and high levels of intimate sharing; lots of within-group aggression to maintain group’s status hierarchies

Early adolescence: primarily same-gender; overtime, combine into → CROWDS

Crowds

Changes in peer group structure

_____________ - include a range of gender identities— break down into mixed-gender cliques

• Mixed-gender cliques break down into loose associations of couples

Heterosexual teens

Romantic relationships

_______________ - Change from same-gender friendships to heterosexual relationships happens more quickly for girls

Early adolescence: gradual openness to other-gender friendships through which skills for romantic relationships are gained

• Romantic relationships become common ~age 15 years

  • Cross-cultural variations

  • Teens of lower SES and who experience earlier puberty are more likely to date and engage in sexual activity

  • Religious influence, family structure, and individual attitudes also influence

2SLGBTQ+ sexually-oriented

Romantic relationships

______________ - Teens must come out to themselves and then (sometimes) to others

Prevalence of teens coming out to parents and peers is increasing

• Parental acceptance associated with greater self-esteem, social support, better health, and lower depression, substance use, and suicidal ideation and attempts

  • Tend to act on sexual attraction sooner

  • Classifying oneself at ~15 years sometimes preceded by period of sexual discovery and experimentation

Asexual and aromantic

Romantic relationships

______________ - Individuals who identify as asexual and/or aromantic can be of any gender identity

• Asexual: do not experience sexual attraction

• Aromantic: do not experience romantic attraction

Teens must come out to themselves and then (sometimes) to others