AP Psych Final Exam Study Guide Fall 2024

Cultural norms

Shared standards and conventions that influence behavior in a society.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Hindsight bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's own abilities or knowledge.

Experimental research

Research that isolates variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Non-experimental research

Research that observes variables without manipulating them.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable that is measured in an experiment.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.

Case study

An in-depth study of an individual or group.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables fluctuate together.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Operational definition

A specific explanation of a variable in terms of the activities used to measure it.

Confounding variable

An outside influence that changes the effect of a dependent and independent variable.

Population

The entire group that researchers are interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population used for gathering information.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.

Random sample

A sample selected in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being chosen.

Convenience sample

A sample made up of subjects who are easy to reach.

Sampling bias

A bias that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population being studied.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to settings or groups beyond the study.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which the participants do not know which group they are in.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in which group.

Third variable problem

The situation when a third variable may be influencing the observed relationship between two variables.

Structured interview

An interview with predetermined questions that can be quantified.

Institutional review

A review process that evaluates the benefits and risks of research involving human participants.

Informed consent

A process ensuring that research participants are fully aware of potential risks and benefits.

No harm

The ethical principle that research participants should not be harmed or put at risk.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle that participants' data must be kept private and secure.

Deception

Misleading participants about the nature of a study for ethical reasons.

Debriefing

Providing participants with a full explanation of a study after their participation.

Histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data.

Scatterplot

A graph that uses dots to represent the values obtained for two different variables.

Measures of central tendency

Statistics that summarize a dataset by identifying the central point.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of values.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers.

Mode

The value that occurs most frequently in a data set.

Normal curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of values.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.

Standard deviation

A measure that quantifies the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index ranging from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength of a correlation.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Claim

An assertion or statement that is open to challenge and requires evidence.

Heredity (Nature)

Traits and characteristics passed from parents to offspring through genes.

Environmental Factors (Nurture)

Influences arising from the environment, including family, culture, and education.

Evolutionary Perspective

A approach to understanding behavior and mental processes through the lens of evolution.

Nervous System

The network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the body.

Refractory Period

A brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing, characterized by a negative charge.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Multiple Sclerosis

An autoimmune disorder that affects the myelin sheath of neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that promote the generation of an electrical signal in a neuron.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that prevent the generation of an electrical signal in a neuron.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor control.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, behavior, and appetite.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in alertness and stress responses.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that plays a role in muscle movement and memory.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that regulate physiological processes.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite and plays a role in energy balance.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Agonists

Substances that activate receptors to produce a biological response.

Antagonists

Substances that block or reduce the action of agonists.

Reuptake Inhibitors

Substances that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the brain.

Stimulants

Substances that increase alertness, attention, and energy.

Depressants

Substances that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Hallucinogens

Substances that alter perceptions and can cause hallucinations.

Reticular Activating System

A network of neurons involved in arousal and attention.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain responsible for coordination and balance.

Limbic System

A complex system of nerves and networks in the brain that control emotional responses.

Thalamus

The brain region involved in relaying sensory information.

Hypothalamus

A region of the brain that regulates body temperature, hunger, and thirst.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland that regulates other endocrine glands and hormones.

Hippocampus

A brain structure involved in learning and memory.

Amygdala

A part of the brain involved in processing emotions.

Corpus Callosum

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Temporal Lobes

Regions of the brain responsible for processing auditory information.

Parietal lobes

Regions of the brain involved in processing sensory information regarding the sense of touch.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area of the brain that processes sensory input from the body.

Frontal Lobes

Regions of the brain associated with reasoning, planning, and problem-solving.

Motor Cortex

Area of the brain that controls voluntary movements.

Brain Lateralization

The division of labor between the two hemispheres of the brain.

Broca’s Area (and Aphasia)

Area of the frontal lobe responsible for speech production.

Wernicke’s Area (and Aphasia)

Area of the brain responsible for language comprehension.

Brain Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experience.

Consciousness

An awareness of oneself and one’s environment.

Circadian Rhythm

The body’s internal biological clock, regulating sleep and wakefulness.

NREM Sleep Stages

Stages of sleep characterized by non-rapid eye movement.

Hypnogogic Sensations

Vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the transition to sleep.

REM Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement and dreams.

REM Rebound

The increased amount of REM sleep following deprivation.

Activation Synthesis Theory

Theory suggesting that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.