social psychology

Psychology

scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering and feeling) and behaviour

main question of social psychology

How does the social environment influence the way people think, feel and behave?

main question of developmental psych

How do people grow, change, and learn across the early stages of life?

main question of personality psych

Are there stable personality traits that determine people's behaviours across time and different situations?

social psych definition

scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

1st social psych experiment

triplett 1898, (examines social facilitation) cyclists ride faster together than alone

40 kids play game (turning in fishing wheel) alone vs in pairs pairs was faster

social facilitation

a psychological phenomenon where the presence of others improves individual performance on a task.

three levels of social psych

- Social influence between individuals

- Relationship between oneself and others

- Individual and the group, between groups and between society and the individual

history of social psych

Prominent researchers who have contributed to psychology held racist attitudes and directly contributed to the subjugation of racial minorities; like Sir Francis Galton

Sir Francis Galton

Developed correlation and regression, which are widely used today in psychology, and coined the term & concept of eugenics.

Eugenics

A concept that formed the basis of racial violence, including forced sterilization in the U.S. and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany.

replication crisis

Many classical findings weren't replicating (same studies, different effect).

w.e.i.r.d samples

research participants from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic backgrounds

what is good scientific evidence

-Observation

-Qualitative

-Quantitative

-Experimental designs

-Longitudinal

-Field Experiments

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Blindness of Empiricism

A concept in psychology that refers to the limitations of relying solely on empirical evidence without considering other factors.

central tenet of empiricism

The belief that the scientist should be a neutral observer, detached from the world to create knowledge.

social influence and social psych questions

Why do we conform and obey? When are we persuaded? How do we know our views are correct?

What are the classic conformity and obedience studies?

-Social norms (Sherif autokenetic studies briefly)

-Conformity (& Non-Conformity; Asch line studies)

-Normative vs. Informational influence (Deutsch & Gerard, Turner)

-Obedience (Milgram Studies - briefly - in Lab 1)

-Power of situational roles (Zimbardo Prison Study, BBC Prison Study)

social influence definition

the processes through which people agree or disagree about what kinds of behaviours are appropriate, It is the process through which social norms are formed, maintained or changed

Muzafer Sherif

A psychologist known for his work on social norms and the autokinetic effect.

Autokinetic Effect

An optical illusion where a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark room.

sherif's definition of norms

Norms are social uniformities which arise from processes of mutual influence between group members (e.g., socialisation, culture, localised networks/groups)

according to sherif, what do norms do

-Endorsed by group members ("right thing to do")

-Describe appropriate behaviour (descriptive)

-Expected by group members (prescriptive)

-"Oughtness" - obligation, duty

-Express social values (what is 'good')

significance of autokinetic studies

-Norms as social products established through interaction of individuals and that continued to have meaning and influence outside of the setting of initial norm formation (sticking to group value)

-Groups established own "mean and range" and the norm affected the group as a whole (Conformity)

-Norm not the sum of individual responses but a 'group product'

- long-term effects

Sherif's Autokinetic Studies

Experiments conducted in 1935 and 1937 that demonstrated the formation of social norms through group influence.

issues of autokinetic studies

-there was no correct answer

-Was it easier for social norms (and conformity to norms) to happen because the movement of the light was an optical illusion - the light really did not move?

-What would happen if there was a correct response?

-Would there be conformity in groups if the right answer is obvious?

Conformity

A tendency for people to change their perceptions, opinions and behaviour in ways that are consistent with group norms

Asch's Line Experiments

Studies that investigated the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.

why did people conform in asch's line experiment

-Group size (the larger the group, the more conformity)

-Group is unanimous (everyone agrees)

-Admire the group's status and attractiveness - (we want to belong)

-Behaviour is visible to others in the group (public)

-Socialised by a culture that encourages respect for social norms and discourages non-normative behaviour

significance of asch's line experiment

-Often results are used to argue that people will go along with the majority in a sheep-like unthinking way, people can turn their backs on reality and truth, there is a "dark side of humanity" - that we will go along with others even when we know it is 'wrong' (herd mentality, group mind, tribalism)

-BUT... a closer look shows participants are actively trying to make sense of situation (not passive and sheep-like) and not 'unthinking'

reality testing

Social reality testing (looking to other people) used when what to do is 'unclear' and physical reality testing (using our own sensors - eyes, ears, touch) is not possible

why did people not use reality testing in asch's line experiments when it was possible to

Deutsch & Gerard (1955) - maybe there are two reality testing processes rather than one: Normative vs. Informational Influence

informational influence

process where individuals change their beliefs or behaviors based on the perception that others have more accurate information, especially in ambiguous situations

what is informational influence similar to

social reality testing - turn to others with relevant knowledge, expertise, etc

normative influence

conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance and avoid rejection, compliance despite private disagreement

what is normative influence similar to

ideas of 'peer-group pressure' and 'negative' influence of social groups

what does informational influence lead to

our desire to be right -> private conformity (which is real)

private conformity

our perceptions are changed by the groups influence (from informational influence)

what does normative influence lead to

conseuences of appearing deviant -> public compliance (which is strategic)

public compliance

expressed only publicly

Why do people privately conform?

we need to be certain in the correctness of our actions in an ambiguous and uncertain situation so we look to others to shape our own response -> over time we internalise it

milgrams shock experiments

a 1960s series of studies to measure obedience to authority, showing that 65% of participants would administer the maximum 450-volt "shock" to a learner, despite the victim's distress and their own personal conscience

significance of milgrims shock experiments

Milgram reveals the importance of "others" - we will obey legitimate authority figures (holocaust)

stanford prison experiment

healthy male college students randomly assigned roles as guards or prisoners in a mock prison. The study was intended to last two weeks but was terminated after six days due to the guards' escalating abusive behavior and the prisoners' extreme emotional distress and submissiveness, highlighting the powerful influence of social situations on individual behavior

the aim of the stanford prison experiment

study of what happens when a powerful authority figure (Zimbardo) has influence in establishing oppressive group norms. (leadership and group norms)

bbc prison experiment (2002)

documentary experiment that randomly assigned men to the roles of "prisoners" and "guards" in a simulated prison setting for eight days. Unlike the earlier Stanford Prison Experiment, this study found that prisoners developed a stronger sense of shared identity and challenged the guards' authority, leading to a system where prisoners eventually overcame the guards and established an egalitarian structure.

significance of prison studies

highlighted the (potential) power of the environment/situation/role/norms...

BUT, behaviour not simply due to situation/role

-Psychological connection to the role/group matters - social identification may be important for 'collective action/power' in the prison

-Lack of effective leadership or a functioning system can lead to tyranny (more control of system)

Zimbardo Prison Study

An experiment that investigated the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers.

Descriptive Norms

Norms that describe what is typically done in a given situation.

Prescriptive Norms

Norms that specify what ought to be done in a given situation.

Stereotyping

A cognitive process that involves assigning characteristics to individuals based on their group membership.

Prejudice

An unfavorable opinion or feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason, often directed towards a group.

Discrimination

The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often based on race, age, or sex.

socio-cultural approaches to prejudice

stereotyping and prejudice and group conflict based on the idea that the origins emerge based on relations between groups

Realistic Conflict Theory

A theory that argues prejudice and intergroup aggression are caused primarily by competition for scarce resources.

who developed realistic conflict theory

sherif

Boys' Camp Studies

Field experiments conducted in the 1950s that examined group dynamics and intergroup conflict among middle-class Caucasian boys.

Mutually Exclusive Goals

Goals that cannot be achieved simultaneously by different groups, that reduces conflict

prejudice from an intergroup perspective

"Prejudice" as an intergroup attitude is meaningful and functional, it follows people's understanding of the intergroup relationship (co-operative or conflictual).

critique of socio-cultural approaches

-Stereotypes (and prejudice) emerge and shift based on context

-Approach more descriptive than explanatory (it doesn't tell us much about what was going on in people's heads)

-Analysis of psychological process remains unclear

-Solutions realistic?

Contextual Shifts in Stereotypes

The idea that stereotypes and prejudices can change based on the social context.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group, often resulting in prejudice against other groups.

Psychodynamic Theories

Theories that suggest personality and behavior are influenced by unconscious motives and conflicts.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Aggression (and prejudice) arises when goal pursuit is blocked; aggression displaced onto less powerful outgroups ('scapegoating').

critique of Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

-Difficult to predict the target of aggression

-Frustration neither necessary nor sufficient to cause aggression

Miller & Bugelski Experiment

An experiment that showed participants who experienced frustration developed more negative attitudes towards minority groups.

Berkowitz's Reformulation

A refinement of the frustration-aggression hypothesis that examines the conditions under which frustration leads to aggression; the perception of deprivation is more important than actual deprivation.

prejudiced personality

A personality type characterized by rejection of outgroups, often linked to early harsh experiences and insecurity

authoritarian personality

A personality syndrome proposed to be related to prejudice, characterized by rigid adherence to conventional values.

prejudiced personality comes from

-punitive and harsh early life experiences

-Insecurity

-Fearfulness

-Inability to cope with inner tensions or conflicts

-Inability to cope with uncertainty, change and ambiguity in the external world

Tolerant Personality

A personality type resulting from permissive parenting, characterized by security, maturity, and inner confidence.

tolerant personality comes from

-permissive parenting and unconditional acceptance

-Security

-Maturity

-qInner confidence and ability to cope with threat and uncertainty

Authoritarian Personality

A personality characterized by rigid adherence to values, submission to authority, and generalized hostility.

authoritarian personality is characterized by

-rigid adherence to conventional values

-an exaggerated need to submit to, and identify with, strong authority

-anti-intraception (dislike for sensitivity or tender-mindedness)

-generalized hostility

-a mystical, superstitious cast of mind

-stereotyped thinking and a tendency to represent the world as 'black and white'

Right-Wing Authoritarianism

A personality construct with three dimensions: authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism.

authoritarian submission

high degree of submission to legitimate authority

Authoritarian aggression

General aggressiveness towards various groups seen to be encouraged by the social or political order of the day

conventionalism

High adherence to social conventions as endorsed by society or established authority

example of right-wing authoritarianism

"Our country will be great if we honour the ways of our forefathers, do what the authorities tell us to do, and get rid of the 'rotten apples' who are ruining everything."

Criticisms of RWA

Overfocus on personality misses collective/institutional prejudice and left/right spectrum nuances.

Field Studies on Aggression

Research showing that external factors like heat can influence the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Sherif's studies indicate

even normal individuals can develop prejudicial beliefs in certain social situations.

Critique of Psycho-Dynamic/Personality Approaches

Criticism of theories that do not account for social norms or intergroup cooperation.

Cognitive limitations

The human mind has limited cognitive capacity, leading to oversimplification in social judgments.

Cognitive miser

The tendency to conserve cognitive resources by relying on mental shortcuts and generalizations.

stereotyping according to cognitive miser

Stereotyping is part of 'normal' or universal cognitive processes rather than 'abnormal' personalities and help us to understand what to expect from our surroundings - including other people

fiske and taylor 1984

View of humans as faulty information-processing devices; perception errors seen as result of limited processing capacity so people often forced to make decisions that are quick and easy (often wrong), rather than ones that are time-consuming and onerous (more often right)

Attributional errors

Mistakes in judgment due to a lack of mental resources to consider all factors involved.

critiques of the cognitive approach

-neglects the role that group membership and intergroup relations play in stereotyping

-Too focused on the potential need to save cognitive resources (e.g., attention)

-downplays the social and political aspects of stereotypes/prejudice: as expressions of group status, ideology and justifications of collective action

Tajfel (1969) definition of stereotypes

the attribution of general psychological characteristics to large human groups

tajfel and wilkes experiment

people assigned to blue B line exaggerated the difference between A and B and how B was similar to other B

key takeaway of tajfel and wilkes experiment

When people perceive there to be a correlation between a classification and a dimension of judgment they will 1. exaggerate the differences between the classes on that dimension 2. minimise the differences within the classes on that dimension because of stereotype accentuation

Socialization of stereotypes

The process through which stereotypes are learned and become relatively enduring.

Dominant explanations for prejudice origins

Factors such as competition over scarce resources, existing hostilities, history of negativity, and personality that contribute to group identity.

Tajfel & colleagues wanted to systematically test dominant explanations for prejudice origins

Started with the baseline condition of forming two groups, minimal group studies shown some paintings, which one do you prefer, randomly assigned to groups assigned money after give more money to members of ingroup

Generalizations in social impressions

The tendency to form impressions of groups rather than individuals to avoid cognitive overload.

Key takeaway from Tajfel's experiment

When people perceive a correlation between classification and social identity, they exaggerate differences between classes and minimize differences within classes.

Social Identity

That part of the self-concept corresponding to our group membership together with the value and emotional significance attached to that group membership.

Positive Distinctiveness

Motivation for the ingroup to be 'positively distinct' from the outgroup, us in comparison to them