Crime and Society Midterm #1 Chapters 1-4

Criminology

The scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behaviour.

Interdisciplinary

Involving two or more academic fields (e.g., sociology, psychology, biology, law)

Why must criminologists remain objective?

To avoid political/media bias and accurately interpret crime trends.

Media vs reality of violent crime in Canada

Despite media claims, police‑reported violent crime has decreased for several consecutive years

• Media overrepresents rare, violent crimes (e.g., homicide) despite low actual frequency.

European Middle Ages view of crime

Crime seen as demonic possession or witchcraft; punishment involved torture and execution.

European Inquisition

Period (15th–17th centuries) involving torture and execution for religious and social deviance.

Classical Criminology

18th‑century movement emphasizing rationality, free will, and proportionate punishment.

Cesare Beccaria (1764)

Italian scholar; argued punishment should be swift, certain, and proportional; founded classical criminology.

• Rational punishment principles.

• Argued laws should be clear, punishment proportionate, and justice rational rather than brutal.

Utilitarianism

Actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Purpose of punishment (classical view)

Deterrence and social improvement, not revenge.

Jeremy Bentham (1789)

Philosopher who expanded utilitarianism and developed the hedonistic calculus.

• Seven-factor model for weighing pleasure vs pain in decision-making.

Hedonistic calculus

Weighing pleasure versus pain when deciding to commit a crime.

Positivism

Uses scientific methods to explain crime as caused by external forces beyond individual control.

Key elements of positivism

Scientific method; behaviour shaped by biological, psychological, social, or economic factors.

Physiognomy (Lavater)

Belief that facial features indicate criminality.

• the shape of ears, nose, and eyes, and the distances between them were associated with antisocial behaviour

Phrenology (Gall & Spurzheim)

Skull shape and bumps reveal personality and criminal traits.

Cesare Lombroso

Father of criminology; believed criminals were biologically inferior "born criminals." (Rejected today)

Atavistic anomalies

Primitive physical traits Lombroso associated with criminals.

Biosocial theory

Crime results from interaction of biological and social factors.

Adolphe Quetelet

Used statistics to link crime to age, sex, poverty, and environment.

• Statistical regularity of crime.

Emile Durkheim

Viewed crime as inevitable and functional for society.

• Crime is normal.

Anomie

Breakdown of social norms leading to confusion and deviance.

Chicago School

Studied how neighbourhood environment shapes crime.

Natural areas

Urban zones where crime concentrates due to social conditions.

White‑collar crime

Crimes committed by individuals of high status

Sutherland (1940): Demonstrated crime among elites is widespread and under-policed.

Penology

Study of punishment and correctional systems.

Victimology

Study of victims and their role in crime.

Deviance vs Crime

Deviance violates norms; crime violates law.

John Hagan’s typology

Social diversion, social deviation, conflict crimes, consensus crimes.

Consensus view of crime

Laws reflect shared social values and applies equally.

Conflict view of crime

Law benefits the powerful and controls the poor.

Interactionist view

Crime defined through social interaction and labeling.

Primary sources of crime data

Police reports, victim surveys, self‑report surveys.

Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR)

Annual police‑reported crime data in Canada.

Crime Severity Index (CSI)

Measures volume and seriousness of crime.

• a yearly crime report

Violent CSI

Tracks seriousness and volume of violent crime.

Non‑violent CSI

Tracks property and other non-violent offences.

Victim surveys

Ask people directly about experiences with crime.

Capture unreported crime and consequences.

General Social Survey – Victimization (GSS‑VS)

National survey of Canadians’ victimization experiences.

• Reveals majority of crime goes unreported.

• Canada’s main victimization survey.

Self‑report surveys

Ask individuals to disclose crimes they committed.

• Measure hidden offending, especially among youth.

• Measure the dark figure of crime.

Dark figure of crime

Crimes that occur but are not reported, recorded or detected

Validity

accurate

reliability

consistent

Age‑crime curve

Crime peaks in adolescence and declines with age

• (Hirschi & Gottfredson)

Aging out

Crime declines naturally with age.

• Reduction in crime as people mature.

• James Q. Wilson & Richard Herrnstein

Gender and crime

Males commit more crime and violent crime; females more property‑related and episodic offences.

Masculinity hypothesis (Lombroso)

Female criminals possess masculine traits.

Racialization

Social construction of race leading to inequality.

Racial profiling

Policing based on race rather than behavior.

Indigenous overrepresentation

Due to systemic inequality and discrimination.

Victimization

Experiencing harm from criminal acts.

Code of Hammurabi

First legal recognition of victims’ rights.

Victim’s role in crime

Victims may play active or indirect roles.

Victim precipitation theory

Victims contribute to their victimization

Lifestyle theory

Certain lifestyles increase victimization risk.

Deviant place theory

Living in high‑crime areas increases risk.

Routine activities theory

Crime occurs when motivated offender, suitable target, and lack of capable guardianship all converge.

Repeat victimization

Some victims are targeted repeatedly.

Costs of victimization

Financial, emotional, physical, social.

Fear of crime

Psychological impact influencing behavior and quality of life.

Victim services programs

Support services for victims.

Victim compensation

Financial reimbursement for losses.

Victim–Witness Assistance Programs (VWAP)

Court support services.

Victim impact statement

Allows victims to describe harm during sentencing.

MADD Canada

Advocacy and support organization for impaired‑driving victims.

Restorative justice / VORPs

Reconciliation between victim and offender.

• (origin: Kitchener, Ontario, 1974)

Choice theory

Crime results from rational decision‑making.

• Crime control through altering costs and benefits.

Rational choice

Weighing costs and benefits before acting

• Roots: Classical criminology (Beccaria)

Structuring crime

Organizing criminal activity based on opportunity.

Target selection

Offenders choose vulnerable targets.

Crime displacement

Crime moves to nearby areas when prevention increases.

General deterrence

Punishment deters the public at large.

Certainty of punishment

Likelihood of being caught (most important deterrent).

• more effective than severity.

Severity of punishment

Harshness of penalty.

Swiftness of punishment

Speed of punishment delivery.

Capital punishment

the execution of criminal offenders (the death penalty)

Brutalization effect

Executions / harsh punishment may increase violence.

Specific deterrence

Punishing offenders to prevent reoffending

Recidivism

Reoffending after punishment.

Probation

Community‑based supervision.

Stigmatization

Punishment that labels and excludes offenders.

Reintegrative shaming (Braithwaite)

Shame followed by reintegration

Incapacitation

Preventing crime through confinement reduces offending by restricting opportunity.

Three‑strikes laws

Mandatory life sentences for repeat offenders.

• Limited crime reduction; increased incarceration.

Situational crime prevention (Ronald Clarke)

Reducing crime opportunities in specific settings.

Crime prevention techniques

Increase effort, increase risk, reduce rewards, reduce provocations, remove excuses.

CPTED

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design.

Routine activities as rational choice

Offenders assess guardianship and targets.

Why is the public fascinated by crime?

Entertainment, suspense, awareness/self‑protection, moral reflection, and reinforcement of conformity.

Entertainment function of crime media

Allows people to experience danger and drama at a safe distance.

Fact‑finding function of crime media

Helps individuals learn about risks and protective behaviours (e.g., sex offender registries).

Positive social functions of crime coverage

Reinforces norms, increases value of conformity, and creates moral boundaries.

Moral reflection

Crime stories prompt reflection on right vs wrong and personal values.

Personification

Crime stories framed around individuals, especially celebrities

Simplicity

Crime presented as simple narratives with clear villains and victims

Status quo bias in crime reporting

Focus on crimes by the poor and powerless; elite crime underreported.

Celebritization of criminals

Turning offenders into media figures (e.g., Netflix series, serial killer trading cards).

Copycat crime

Crimes inspired by publicity and attention given to previous offenders.

Media effects on public perceptions of crime

Increased fear, belief crime is out of control, negative views of justice system.

Public response to crime media

Support for harsher punishments and punitive policies.