AP European History Unit 1

What were the main causes and effects of the Hundred Years' War?

• Causes: English kings' claims to the French throne and control over French territories like Gascony.

• Effects: Devastation of French soil, strengthening of the French monarchy, and a shift in English national identity away from continental Europe.

What was the significance of the English longbow in the Hundred Years' War?

The longbow was a major military advantage for the English. Its speed and penetrating power allowed English archers to defeat French knights at key battles like Crécy and Poitiers.

What were the short-term and long-term effects of the Black Death on Europe?

• Short-term: Massive population decline (25-50%), social and economic disruption, and an increase in religious questioning.

• Long-term: Labor shortages led to higher wages and better living standards for surviving workers.

What was the Great Western Schism, and how was it resolved?

• What it was: A split within the Catholic Church with two, and later three, rival popes claiming authority. It was caused by political and national rivalries.

• Resolution: The Council of Constance (1414-1418) ended the schism by electing a single new pope, Martin V.

What is a common misconception about the Late Middle Ages in comparison to the Italian and Northern Renaissance?

A myth is that the Late Middle Ages were the "Dark Ages," with no learning or culture. In reality, it was a period of crisis that set the stage for the explosion of interest in classical Greco-Roman culture during the Renaissance.

What is Humanism?

The central philosophy of the Renaissance. It emphasized the study of classical Greco-Roman culture to improve human potential and valued education in the liberal arts.

Who is considered the "Father of Humanism"?

Francesco Petrarch. He was a poet and scholar who actively sought to revive classical Latin and Greek texts.

What was the educational foundation of the liberal arts curriculum during the Renaissance?

The "trivium" (grammar, rhetoric, logic) and the "quadrivium" (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy). This model was based on classical learning and aimed to create well-rounded citizens.

What is Civic Humanism?

An application of humanist ideals to public life. It involved city leaders and wealthy patrons using their resources for public works, charity, and the arts, a practice similar to modern philanthropy.

Who were two key ancient thinkers whose philosophies were central to the humanism of the Renaissance?

Plato and Aristotle. Their writings and ideas formed the philosophical foundation for the new schools of thought, like Neo-Platonism in Florence.

How did political power differ between Northern European states and Italian city-states?

Northern European states were consolidating into unified monarchies. Italian city-states remained independent, ruled by wealthy families (like the Medici) or powerful despots, leading to political fragmentation and competition.

Who were the condottieri and what was their role in Renaissance Italy?

Condotteiri were leaders of mercenary armies hired by the city-states. Since city-states didn't have their own permanent armies, they relied on these professional soldiers for defense and warfare.

How did the role of the Papacy change during the Renaissance?

Popes became significant political and military rulers of the Papal States. Figures like Julius II and Alexander VI were known for their secular power, extravagant lifestyles, and involvement in wars and political intrigues.

What was the economic innovation that gave Italian city-states a major advantage?

The development of modern banking and finance. The Italian city-states pioneered currency, credit, and sophisticated banking systems, which generated immense wealth and political influence for families like the Medici.

What was the social hierarchy of Renaissance Italy, from top to bottom?

• Grandi: The "super-rich" merchant and banking elite.

• Popolo Grosso: The upper-middle-class merchants.

• Popolo Minuto: The lower-middle-class artisans and workers.

• Peasants: The rural poor.

How did slavery in Renaissance Italy differ from later American slavery?

Italian slaves were often prisoners of war from Eastern Europe and elsewhere, not primarily from Africa. Their status was not always hereditary, and they were more often employed as domestic servants and artisans rather than agricultural laborers.

How did the Black Death increase the wealth and power of the Church?

People, especially wealthy nobles and landowners, often willed their property and money to the Church as they died, hoping to secure salvation. This influx of land and wealth made the Church one of Europe's largest landowners, significantly increasing its political and economic influence.

What does the passage from Pico de la Mirandola's "Oration on the Dignity of Man" reveal about Neo-Platonism?

The passage reflects the core Neo-Platonic idea of a hierarchy of being, where humans have the unique ability to ascend or descend. It suggests that through reason and intellect, humans can elevate themselves to a divine state, connecting with a higher power.

Why did Lorenzo Valla fear retribution for his work "On the Donation of Constantine"?

Valla's work proved that the "Donation of Constantine," a document used for centuries to justify the Pope's temporal power, was a forgery. By directly challenging the Church's legal basis for its political claims, he was defying the authorities and feared punishment.

How did Cosimo de' Medici's rule in Florence relate to the concept of the "Signori"?

Cosimo de' Medici and his family, the Medici, were the de facto rulers of Florence. They fit the description of Signori—powerful families who, while maintaining a facade of a republic, exercised absolute political control through their wealth and influence.

How did some women in Renaissance Italy gain a degree of economic independence?

Although women were largely confined to the domestic sphere, those in the middle and artisan classes often played a vital role in family businesses. They would manage household finances, assist their husbands' trade, and in some cases, inherit and manage a business after their husband's death.

According to Marchionne di Coppo Stefani, what was a key economic consequence of the Black Death in Florence?

The plague caused a sudden economic downturn and a disruption of supply chains. His notes describe "many houses full of goods without a master," showing how normal economic activity came to a halt.

What does the image of Pope Adrian refusing to move to Rome represent?

The image represents the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy, also known as the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377). During this time, the popes resided in Avignon, France, and were heavily influenced by the French monarchy, leading to a significant crisis for the Church.

How did Lorenzo Valla prove that the "Donation of Constantine" was a forgery?

He used historical and linguistic analysis. Valla meticulously examined the Latin in the document and found that the vocabulary and grammatical constructions were from the 8th century, not the 4th century during the time of Constantine, proving it was a medieval forgery.

Why is Jean Froissart the most likely chronicler of a passage describing a battle during the Hundred Years' War?

Froissart was a medieval chronicler who wrote "Chronicles," a major source for the Hundred Years' War. His writing style focuses on chivalric adventures and the deeds of nobles and knights, making him the most likely author of such a scene.

Why was John Wycliffe able to survive his reformist challenges to the Church, while Jan Hus was executed?

Wycliffe was protected by powerful English nobles who supported his anti-papal stance. Jan Hus, a Bohemian reformer, lacked this powerful secular protection and was ultimately condemned as a heretic and executed at the Council of Constance.

What social consequence of the plague is described in Marchionne di Coppo Stefani's writings?

The plague caused a dramatic shift in wealth and property ownership. Stefani noted "houses full of goods without a master" and people who "found themselves rich with what did not seem to be theirs," indicating a reordering of social classes.

How did the Catholic Church's assertion of absolute spiritual authority conflict with the rising power of monarchs?

The Church saw itself as the sole true authority, "one ark, that of Noah." This assertion of singular spiritual power directly conflicted with monarchs and nation-states, who were increasingly seeking to assert their own supreme authority over both their subjects and the Church within their territories.

What two European nations recently joined NATO in response to Russian aggression, and what does this signify?

Finland and Sweden joined NATO in April 2023 and March 2024, respectively. Their decision, after decades of military non-alignment, was a direct result of Russia's invasion of Ukraine and signifies their desire for the collective security guarantees provided by the alliance.

What was the primary difference between Italian Humanism and Northern Humanism (Christian Humanism)?

• Italian Humanism: Focused on the study of classical texts to improve oneself and society. It was largely secular in its approach.

• Northern Humanism: Focused on the study of classical and early Christian texts to reform the Catholic Church and return to a more "pure" Christian faith.

How did the subject matter and style of Italian Renaissance art differ from Northern Renaissance art?

• Italian: Emphasized balance, symmetry, idealized forms, and classical themes. Used techniques like sfumato and chiaroscuro to create a sense of harmony.

• Northern: Emphasized realistic detail, often with darker colors. It focused on everyday life and religious subjects, sometimes with veiled social or religious criticism.

Who were some key literary figures of the Italian Renaissance?

• Francesco Petrarch ("Father of Humanism")

• Dante Alighieri (The Divine Comedy)

• Pico della Mirandola (Oration on the Dignity of Man)

• Giovanni Boccaccio (The Decameron)

Who was the most important figure in Northern Humanism?

Desiderius Erasmus. He is known as the "Father of Christian Humanism" and wrote In Praise of Folly to satirize corruption in the Church.

What were the two main sources of patronage for Italian Renaissance art?

The Catholic Church (e.g., Pope Julius II commissioning Michelangelo) and wealthy banking families (e.g., the Medici family commissioning numerous artists).

What was a key innovation of Northern Renaissance art, and how did it differ from Italian art?

Northern artists, like Jan van Eyck, paid meticulous attention to realistic detail in their backgrounds and foregrounds. This contrasted with Italian art, where the background often served to highlight the central figures.