Second Industrial Revolution and Rise of the City Test

Causes of Industrial Growth

abundant resources, high immigration, expanding global markets, economic growth, increased innovation, and ambitious entrepreneurship.

Government Help

protective tariffs and a laissez-faire approach.

Major Industries

steel, oil, electricity, and transportation.

Steel Industry

Innovations like the Bessemer Process, Carnegie's efficient production methods, and Pittsburgh's growth—all backed by financiers like J.P. Morgan.

Oil Industry

Edwin Drake's drilling in Pennsylvania led to oil discoveries, and Rockefeller's Standard Oil came to dominate the market.

Electricity Revolution

The introduction of the light bulb (and related innovations) transformed daily life and communication.

Transportation Advances

cars, railroads, and carriages—with railroads employing many immigrants under challenging conditions.

Transcontinental Railroad

A railroad built by two companies meeting in Utah (symbolized by the repeatedly stolen "Golden Spike"), which spurred national commerce and travel.

Credit Mobilier Scandal

Union Pacific stockholders formed a construction firm, awarded themselves contracts, and bribed Congress—undermining political integrity.

Farmers vs. Railroads

Railroads charged exorbitant rates and seized land, plunging farmers into debt and prompting regulatory responses (Granger Laws, Interstate Commerce Act).

Taylorism

A method that broke manufacturing into simple, standardized tasks—the foundation for assembly-line production.

Industrial Titans

Henry Ford, J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and John D. Rockefeller

Henry Ford

Revolutionized manufacturing with assembly lines, produced the Model T, and paid workers a then-innovative $5/day wage.

Andrew Carnegie

A steel magnate who used vertical integration to cut costs and promoted the "Gospel of Wealth," suggesting that the rich should give back to society.

John D. Rockefeller

Built an oil monopoly using horizontal integration and trust agreements, noted for his ruthless business tactics.

J.P. Morgan

A powerful financier who supported railroads, helped stabilize the U.S. economy in 1907, and was a noted patron of the arts.

Cornelius Vanderbilt

Amassed wealth in railroads and shipping, notably managing ferry operations on the Hudson River.

Workers' Conditions

long hours, low wages (around $500/year), dangerous environments, little job security, and widespread child labor—with women constituting about 17% of the workforce.

Rise of Labor Unions

Workers united (in groups like the National Labor Union and the Knights of Labor) to demand better conditions, abolition of child labor and monopolies, and equal pay.

Who led the American Federation of Labor?

Samuel Gompers - focusing on protecting skilled workers and improving labor conditions.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

A widespread strike triggered by a 10% wage cut, resulting in about 100 deaths and exposing the vulnerabilities of early unions.

Haymarket Riot

A protest for an 8‑hour workday that turned violent—with police brutality and casualties—which hurt the reputation of labor unions.

Homestead Strike

In 1892, a strike at a Carnegie steel plant led to violent clashes (including Pinkerton intervention and National Guard involvement), highlighting union weakness.

Pullman Strike

A 1893 strike over layoffs, wage cuts, and high rent during a depression that collapsed after federal troops intervened.

Who were the Women in labor?

Mary Harris Jones, Pauline Newman --- played key roles in organizing workers and pushing for better conditions.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

A tragic factory fire in which 146 women died due to locked exits and unsafe conditions, spurring critical workplace safety reforms.

Reactions to Unions

Fired union members (using yellow-dog contracts), and governments sometimes deployed troops to suppress labor actions.

Major Cities **

New York, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, New Orleans, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Portland, Richmond, San Francisco, and Seattle.

New Immigrants

Predominantly unskilled, poor individuals from Italy, Greece, Austria-Hungary, and Russia.

Immigrant Push Factors

Economic hardship, land loss, wars

Immigrant Pull Factors

Employment opportunities, available land, chain migration, and religious freedom

Nativism **

Anti-immigrant sentiment favoring native-born Americans—supporting immigration only from Britain, Germany, and Scandinavia—and fueling measures like literacy tests and the Chinese Exclusion Act.

Political Machines

Urban organizations (Tammany Hall) that controlled votes through patronage, graft, and fraud by offering jobs, housing, and quick naturalization to immigrants.

Economic & Consumer Changes

The rise of a stronger middle class and increased wages, alongside new merchandising methods (ready-made clothing, chain stores, mail-order catalogs) that transformed shopping and undercut small businesses.

Urban Culture & Mass Communication

The emergence of a sophisticated urban elite influenced by new media (newspapers, magazines) and cultural movements (art, literature, Social Darwinism) that reshaped public life.

Education Expansion

A societal demand for education led to more public schools, the growth of colleges (including land-grant institutions), and expanded educational opportunities for women.

Sports and Leisure

Sports evolved into organized professional activities—baseball, college football (NCAA regulation), basketball (invented in 1891 by Naismith), and boxing (under Queensberry rules, with John L. Sullivan as a star). Additionally, horse racing (with events like the Kentucky Derby) and sports betting became culturally significant, while women were largely excluded from competitive sports.