6.1 What Are the HL and Literacy Expectations and Beliefs Held by Transnational Families? (RQ1)

Past research with multilingual families has focused principally on the key role of parents holding positive beliefs about their heritage language (e.g. Abreu Fernandes, 2019; Melo-Pfeifer, 2015; Wilson, 2020).

过去针对多语言家庭的研究主要关注父母对其母语持有积极信念的关键作用（例如 Abreu Fernandes，2019；Melo-Pfeifer，2015；Wilson，2020）。

However, little attention has been paid to other language beliefs that children may hold, as well as to factors other than parental beliefs. From my analysis, three important insights emerged.

然而，很少有人关注儿童可能持有的其他语言信念，以及父母信念以外的其他因素。我的分析得出了三个重要的见解。

First, a key reason most interviewed children were committed to HL maintenance was family bonding. Second, the desire to maintain the HL becomes more widespread as children grow older and transition from passive recipients to active learners.

首先，大多数受访儿童致力于维持HL的一个关键原因是家庭纽带。其次，随着儿童年龄的增长，从被动接受者转变为主动学习者，维持HL的愿望会变得更加普遍。

Third, when examining the relationship between HL ideologies and perceptions of the link between HL and identity, it was found that stronger ethnic identity tended to correspond with higher levels of HL proficiency.

第三，在考察HL意识形态与HL与身份认同之间联系的认知之间的关系时，我们发现，更强烈的族裔认同往往与更高的HL熟练程度相对应。

First, the maintenance of HL is considered important for fostering family cohesion. In Studies I and III, most children believed that the HL was viewed not only as a bridge in parent–child interactions but also as a tie that connects children with their non‑English‑speaking grandparents and other family members in China.

首先，保持HL（母语为汉语）被认为对促进家庭凝聚力至关重要。在研究一和研究三中，大多数儿童认为HL不仅是亲子互动的桥梁，也是连接孩子与非英语母语的祖父母及其他中国家庭成员的纽带。

In the study, except for Son E1 and Son E2, who represent the third generation and whose grandparents speak fluent English, all of the participants’ maintenance of their HL has been highly impacted by their desire to communicate with their grandparents in Chinese.

在本研究中，除了儿子E1和E2代表第三代，他们的祖父母能说流利的英语外，所有参与者保持HL都受到他们希望用中文与祖父母交流的强烈影响。

This study, therefore, strengthens the evidence that not only parents in transnational families from different geographical regions but also their children are keen for the children to learn both HL.

因此，本研究进一步证实，不仅来自不同地区的跨国家庭的父母，而且他们的孩子也渴望孩子学习HL。

Second, the finding on children’s positive attitudes towards HL literacy has demonstrated the variability and dynamism of their views, often associating these with the age at which children mature (see Section 2.3).

其次，关于儿童对HL素养的积极态度的发现表明，他们观点的多变性和动态性，通常将这些观点与儿童成熟的年龄联系起来（见第2.3节）。

In Studies II and III, it was found that children under 10 were generally forced to study the HL, and when they turned into adolescents, they actively recognised the importance of self-driven HL learning.

研究二和研究三发现，10岁以下的儿童普遍被迫学习汉语，而当他们步入青少年时期时，他们积极认识到自主学习汉语的重要性。

This finding contrasts with earlier studies suggesting that most Chinese adolescents view learning Chinese as merely complying with parental expectations (e.g. Zhang & Slaughter, 2009).

这一发现与早期研究结果形成鲜明对比，这些研究表明，大多数中国青少年认为学习汉语仅仅是遵从父母的期望（例如，Zhang & Slaughter，2009）。

In Study II in particular, adolescents consistently demonstrated a genuine interest in self‑motivation for HL learning.

尤其是在研究二中，青少年始终表现出对自主学习汉语的真正兴趣。

Therefore, the positive attitudes and agentive acts observed among adolescents in learning minority languages within the framework of Smith‑Christmas’ (2020) child agency model suggest that this self‑motivation is not simply part of a compliance regime but rather represents a self‑initiated, identity‑related and heritage‑motivated ideological act.

因此，在Smith-Christmas（2020）的儿童自主模型框架内观察到的青少年在学习少数民族语言方面的积极态度和主动行为表明，这种自我激励不仅仅是一种顺从机制的一部分，而是一种自我发起的、与身份认同相关且受传统文化传统驱动的意识形态行为。

Third, children (and all three generations) maintained the belief that learning HL can help them connect with their cultural heritage and reinforce the formation of a strong ethnic identity.

第三，儿童（以及所有三代人）都坚信学习汉语可以帮助他们与自身文化传统建立联系，并强化强烈的族群认同感。

In Studies I, II and III, children aged above 11 asserted that culture and Chinese identity are crucial aspects of maintaining Chinese as an HL.

在研究一、二和三中，11岁以上的儿童认为，文化和中华民族认同感是保持华人作为汉语族群的关键因素。

These adolescents, who are generally fluent and proficient in Chinese, often demonstrated and maintained a strong dual identity, as both fully English and fully Chinese individuals.

这些青少年通常能够流利地使用中文，并且经常展现并保持强烈的双重身份认同，既是纯正的英国人，又是纯正的中国人。

In contrast, younger children were less likely to articulate a robust sense of being Chinese; however, they displayed an emerging awareness of their dual Chinese–English identity. This perspective, which views language as a marker of identity, is closely associated with the notion of embodied ethnicity and heritage culture.

相比之下，年龄较小的儿童不太可能清晰地表达出强烈的“华人”身份认同；然而，他们逐渐意识到自己的中英双重身份认同。这种将语言视为身份标志的观点与“体化族群”和传统文化的概念密切相关。

Notably, the HL attitudes and beliefs observed among all participants are consistent with the findings of Francis et al. (2014, p. 213), who noted that ‘races’ labelled as ‘Chinese’ are expected to exhibit a form of Sinicism constructed within imagined communities.

值得注意的是，在所有参与者中观察到的汉语族群态度和信念与Francis等人（2014，第213页）的研究结果一致，他们指出，被标记为“华人”的“种族”预计会表现出一种在想象的共同体中构建的汉化形式。

Moreover, regarding parental beliefs about HL maintenance, the primary contribution of the findings relates to the attitudinal differences between grandparents and parents and between parents and children. First, the attitudes of parents and grandparents towards Chinese are both conflicting and convergent.

此外，关于父母对母语保持的信念，研究结果的主要贡献在于祖父母与父母之间以及父母与子女之间态度的差异。首先，父母和祖父母对中文的态度既相互冲突又趋同。

In Study I, attitudinal tensions emerged from the strong desire of both parents and grandparents to maintain the Chinese language, although they emphasised different skills with regard to oral and written Chinese. Nevertheless, both groups highlighted the importance of cultural identity, the economic value of Chinese for career development and its symbolic significance for identity expression.

在研究一中，尽管父母和祖父母在口语和书写能力方面侧重不同，但双方都强烈希望保持中文，这导致了态度上的紧张。然而，两组都强调文化认同的重要性、中文对职业发展的经济价值及其在身份表达方面的象征意义。