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learning
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together, events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage — when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response)
extinction
in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response — when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response
generalization (stimulus generalization)
in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other similar situations)
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced).
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher
law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. Any stimulus that when removed after a response, strengthens the response
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response every time it occurs
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
instinctive drift
tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
observational learning
learning by observing others (social learning)
modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. Opposite of antisocial behavior
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short term memory
briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten
long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
working memory
a newer understanding of short term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long term memory
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, tens to yield the best retention
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events, one of our two conscious memory systems
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid simulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
priming
the activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us to recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
metacognition
cognition about our cognition, keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category, matching new items to this provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
fixation
in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit conscious reasoning
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness). we presume such events are common
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
belief perseverance
the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements
nudge
framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions