AP Psychology: Unit 5

semantic memory

allows for cognitive processes and contains general knowledge

episodic memory

consists of an individual’s past experiences

Hermann Ebbinghaus

researched memory and retention

recall

when information that has been learned in the past can be brought back to the conscious mind without prompting

recognition

when information that has been learned from the past can be identified when prompted

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for the second time

iconic sensory memory

immediate memory derived from visual stimuli

echoic sensory memory

immediate memory derived from auditory stimuli

short-term memory

storing a few pieces of information for up to 30 seconds

maintenance rehearsal

continuously going over information; active part of the encoding process

long-term memory

limitless memory that needs to be retrieved after being stored for a short amount of time

explicit memory

intentionally stored memory of facts

implicit memory

unintentionally and unconsciously stored memory of past experiences

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

task switching

when an individual is most efficient at completing a single task and is more likely to make errors and take longer when trying to complete multiple tasks

parallel processing

when multiple separate operations are occurring at the same time but can function independently; normal method of processing information and allows for multiple stimuli to be processed at once

shallow processing

processing basic information without much attention to detail

deep processing

processing information with strong intent and attention

information processing model

suggests that our brain receives, interprets, and uses information in stages corresponding to different steps in the information processing system

absorption, encoding, retention, retrieval

steps of the information processing system

encoding

when stimuli are converted into mental representations that are then processed and stored

tactile encoding

processing information derived from touch stimuli

organizational encoding

processing information in terms of sequences or categories

elaborative encoding

processing information by connecting it to information that was learned in the past

semantic encoding

processing information by focusing on its deeper meaning

spacing effect

spacing out studying to get a better understanding of information

testing effect

repeatedly taking tests to improve the memory of information

chunking

organizing information into meaningful groups

mnemonic devices

images that are linked to the information being learned

flashbulb memory

memory from moments in an individual’s life that were emotionally significant to them

retrieval

the process of accessing old memories

priming

how context affects information

context-dependent memory

suggests that information is better remembered when it’s recalled in the same place where it was initially learned

state-dependent memory

suggests that information is better remembered when it’s recalled in the same biological/physiological state with which it was initially learned

mood-congruent memory

suggests that information is better remembered when it’s recalled in the same mood with which it was initially learned

serial position effect

suggests that memory is affected by the order of which they were presented

retrieval failure

when individual cannot recall known information

proactive interference (forward acting)

the inability of learning new material due to material learned in the past

retroactive interference (backward acting)

the inability of recalling old material due to similarities with new material that is being learned

anterograde amnesia

when an individual is unable to learn new information; results from damage to the hippocampus

retrograde amnesia

when an individual is unable to recall old information; results from concussions

source amnesia

when an individual is able to recall old information but cannot remember its context

reconsolidation

when a memory is recalled and can be changed, strengthened, or modified before being consolidated again

misinformation effect

when misinformation affects memory

long-term potentiation

when a synaptic transmission is enhanced by repeated stimulations of the same connections, therefore strengthening over time and leading to memory formation

anchoring

when an individual relies heavily on the first piece of information given when making a decision

formal reasoning

following a system or sequence in order to come to the correct solution

metacognition

when an individual is aware of their own cognitive processes

syllogism

using logic and deductive reasoning to solve a problem

diagnosis

solving a problem by eliminating the incorrect answer first

cognitive bias

when the brain errors while trying to simplify information

anchoring bias

the tendency to think that an answer is closer to the starting value

representative heuristic

when an individual is judged based on how representative they are of a stereotype

availability heuristic

when the occurrence of something is judged based on how much information is available

framing

when the context of information influences how it’s perceived

fixedness

the tendency to view something through only a single perspective

triarchic theory

consists of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Charles Spearman

believed that there is only a single form of intelligence that can only be measured through tests

Robert Sternberg

proposed the triarchic theory

William Stern

proposed the IQ test

Flynn Effect

the proposition that the world’s IQ will gradually increase

David Wechsler

created an adult intelligence scale

crystallized intelligence

the total amount of knowledge of general information that an individual has

fluid intelligence

the ability for the mind to process unfamiliar information and acquire general knowledge

Savant Syndrome

when an individual demonstrates exceptional cognitive abilities in a specific area while struggling with other mental abilities

stereotype threat

when people perform poorly due to the circumstances that they’re in

psychometrics

branch of psychology that measures and quantifies mental attributes

split-half reliability

high correlation between halves of a test

equivalent-form reliability

high correlation between different forms of the test

test-retest reliability

high correlation between different administrations of the test

phoneme

a sound that is used in speech and cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful sounds

morpheme

a unit of meaning that cannot be broken down into smaller units

Noam Chomsky

believed that individuals are born with the knowledge of language and that there’s a universal language

Edward Sapir

believed that an individual’s language shapes their thoughts