BIO 1111 FInal Exam Study Guide

Biology

The scientific study of life.

Properties of Life

The characteristics that define living organisms, including order, sensitivity to the environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, energy processing, and evolution.

Cell Theory

The theory that all living things are composed of cells, and that cells are the basic unit of life.

Natural Selection

A process in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Evolution

The change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

The transfer of energy through a food chain, representing how energy moves from producers to consumers.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, which can be tested through scientific experimentation.

Atom

The smallest unit of an element, comprising protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Element

A pure substance consisting only of one type of atom, represented on the periodic table.

Valence Shell

The outermost shell of an atom, which contains the valence electrons that can participate in chemical bonding.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed between two ions with opposite charges.

Cohesion

The property of water that allows molecules to stick together due to hydrogen bonding.

pH

A measure of how acidic or basic a solution is, on a scale from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic).

Monomer

A small molecule that can join together with other similar molecules to form polymers.

Polymers

Large molecules formed by the joining of multiple monomers.

Hydrophilic Substance

A substance that likes water (can interact with water molecules).

Hydrophobic Substance

A substance that repels water and does not mix well with it.

Mole

A unit used to measure the amount of substance, defined as exactly 6.022 x 10^23 particles.

Specific Heat

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Celsius.

Functional Groups

Specific groups of atoms within molecules that confer specific chemical properties upon those molecules.

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction that involves the formation of larger molecules by the removal of water.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks down compounds by adding water.

Catalyst

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed or altered in the process.

Enzyme

Is a catalyst (a protein that acts as a catalyst in biochemical reactions, lowering the activation energy).

Cytoplasm

The material within a cell, excluding the nucleus, where various cellular processes take place.

Nucleus

The membrane-bound organelle that contains the genetic material (DNA) in eukaryotic cells.

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plant cells that is responsible for photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death occurs when triggered by signals that activate a cascade of “Suicide” proteins for in the cells designated to die (a normal part of growth and development)

Gene

A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for the development of a particular trait.

Genome

The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.

Allele

Different forms of a gene that can exist at a specific locus on a chromosome.

Chromosome

A structure made of DNA and protein that houses genetic information.

Mitosis

The process of cell division where one cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four genetically diverse gametes. (mix it up and split it up)

Heterotroph

An organism that obtains food by consuming other living things.

Autotroph

An organism that produces its own food from inorganic substances.

Metabolism

enables an organism to meet its nutrient and energy demands

Redox Reaction

A type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two species.

Polypeptide

A polymer composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Translation

The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA as a template.

Mutations

Permanent alterations in the DNA sequence (can lead to changes in protein function and contribute to genetic diversity).

Operon

A unit of genetic expression in prokaryotes that consists of a promoter, operator, and one or more structural genes.

Oncogenes

Genes that have the potential to cause cancer, usually involved in regulating cell growth and division.

Proto-oncogenes

Normal genes that can become oncogenes due to mutations or increased expression.

Tumor-suppressor genes

Genes that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth; when they are mutated, cancer may result.

What phase is this?

Telophase/Cytokinesis

What phase is this?

Anaphase  

What phase is this?

Metaphase

What phase is this?

Prometaphase

What phase is this?

Prophase  

what does the G1 Phase do?

grow cell

What does the S Phase do?

synthesis DNA

What does the G2 Phase do?

Grow cell more and prep for M-phase

What happens in M-phase (Mitosis and Cytokinesis)?

form two identical daughter cells.

What are the phases in Interphase?

G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase

What are the 2 phases of M-phase?

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

What are the steps in MItosis

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase/cytokinesis

What is the acronym for the steps in Mitosis?

PPMAT

Somatic Cells

everything except egg or sperm

2n = 46

n = ?

23, number of different chromosomes

What is 2n called?

Diploid (sporophyte for plants by mitosis)

What is n called?

Haploid (gametophyte for plants by meiosis)

asexual reproduction

a single individual passes all of it's genes to its offspring (no variation), like creating a clone

sexual reproduction

two individuals passes half their genes to its offspring creating variations every time

Karyotype

Ordered display of chromosome from cell

Homologous Chromosomes (homologs)

Chromosomes that have the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern

autosomes

all 22 chromosomes, except for the sex chromosome

Sex chromosomes

The last chromasome, X or Y

two nonsister chromatids

Sister Chromatids

What are the phases for Mitosis

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase/cytokinesis → identical daughter cells, Somatic Cells

What are the phases for Meiosis

prophase 1 (cross DNA), metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase/cytokinesis 1, prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase/cytokinesis 2 → nonidentical daughter cells, Gametes

What is the cell cycle

Interphase, G1, S phase, G2, Mitosis prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase/cytokinesis Meiosis prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, telophase/cytokinesis 2

What is the name of this ‘X’ shape?

Chiasmata (chromosome)

What is synapsis?

Homologous chromosomes pair up for cross over

What are the nitrogenous bases?

A, T, G, C

Pairing a purine. What is a purine? (Pure As Gold)

Adenine and Guanine

Pairing a pyrimidine. What is a pyrimidine?

Cytosine and Thymine

Which is correct? Pairing:

pyrimidine with pyrimidine, or

purine with purine, or

pyrimidine with purine

pyrimidine with purine

Where does replication start?

origins of replication (where the two DNA strands are separate, opening up replication “bubble”)

Helicase (in DNA replication)

enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication fork

Single-strand Binding Proteins

they bind to and stabilize single-stranded DNA

Topoisomerase

relieves the strain that helicase might cause when unwinding them

DNA Polymerase

adds the other bases (ACTG) components of DNA (making the other side) by synthesizing it

Primase (primer)

is the starting point

Leading Strand

growing towards the replication fork, so can be made in one piece using only one primase

lagging strand

growing away from the replication fork, needs multiple primases, so made in pieces, also known as okazaki fragments

is DNA replication an anabolic or catabolic process (cat knocks down building)

anabolic

DNA Ligase

it seals gaps after DNA replication

DNA Pol I

cuts out Primase from 5’ end and replaces missing nucleotide pieces with other DNA nucleotides from 3’ end of adjacent fragment

DNA Pol III

Builds new sequence - synthesizes new DNA, adds nucleotides to RNA Primer (or pre-existing DNA strand)

What is the order of DNA replication?

Topoisomerase, Helicase, Single-Strand Binding Protein, Primase, DNA Pol III, DNA Pol I, DNA Ligase

In which direction does DNA replication occur? (3’ or 5’)

Always moves starting from 3’ end

Nuclease

cuts out damaged stretches of DNA

Telomeres

on tail ends of chromosomes after DNA replication, on the missing pieces that cannot be copied

the smallest unit of life that can exist on its own

cell

subatomic particle found in nucleus with pos. charge …

proton

if an atom has 13 protons and 15 neutrons, it’s atomic number is …

13