BIO 1111 FInal Exam Study Guide

The final exam is cumulative over chapters 1-10, 11.5, 12-17, and 18.1-18.3 and 18.5. Not everything will be on the final, but any topic covered over the semester can be on it.

Chapter 1: Biology and Scientific Inquiry

• What is biology?

• What are the properties of life? Describe each one.

• What are the levels of biological organization? Describe each one and know the order of complexity.

• What is the cell theory?

• What is the molecule that carries a cell’s genetic information?

• What are genes? How does information stored in genes lead to a cellular product?

• What is evolution? How does evolution occur through natural selection?

• What is adaptation? How do adaptations come about through natural selection?

• Describe the flow of energy through the ecosystem.

  • How does energy primarily enter the ecosystem?

  • What do plants (producers) do with the energy they receive?

    • What is this process of converting energy called?

  • What do consumers do with the energy they receive?

    • What is this process of using energy for work called?

  • How does energy leave the ecosystem?

• What is negative feedback? Give some examples.

• What are the 3 domains of life?

  • Which organisms are included in each domain?

  • What are the Kingdoms within the Domain Eukarya?

  • Which organisms are included in each kingdom?

• What is the order of the steps in the scientific method?

  • What is a hypothesis?

  • What is a controlled experiment?

  • What is an independent variable?

  • What is a dependent variable?

  • What is the difference between a control group and an experimental group?

  • What is a theory?

Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life

Atoms

• What is an element?

• What are the primary elements that make up about 96% of living matter?

• What is an atom?

  • What is a proton?

  • What is a neutron?

  • What is an electron?

• Which subatomic particles determine an atom’s physical properties?

• Which subatomic particles determine an atom’s chemical (interaction) properties?

• What is an atomic number?

• How is the atomic mass determined?

• What is an isotope?

• What is a valence shell? Why is the number of electrons in a valence shell important?

• How many valence electrons do hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon each have?

• Use the periodic table of elements to reference information about elements, including atomic symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass (atomic weight).

Chemical bonding

• What is the octet rule?

• What is an ion? What is a cation? What is an anion?

• What is an ionic bond? Give an example.

• What is a covalent bond?

  • What is a non-polar covalent bond?

  • What is a polar covalent bond?

  • What is electronegativity?

  • What is a single covalent bond? A double bond? A triple bond?

  • How many covalent bonds can be formed each of the following atoms: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon?

• What is a molecular formula? What is the structural formula?

• How is molecular weight calculated?

• What is a hydrogen bond? Give an example.

  • Are hydrogen bonds weak or strong bonds? Explain (individually vs. collectively).

• What is a chemical reaction? What are the components of a chemical reaction?

• What is chemical equilibrium?

Chapter 3: Water and Life

Properties of Water

• What is the molecular formula and structural formula for water.

• Why are water molecules polar?

• What type of bonds connect water molecules to each other?

• What is cohesion/adhesion?

• What is surface tension?

• What is the specific heat of a substance? What is the significance of the high specific heat of water?

• What is evaporative cooling and how is it significant in organisms?

• What is unique about the way water freezes? How is floating ice significant to ecosystems?

• Why is water considered the solvent of life?

  • What is a solvent?

  • What is a solute?

    • Which types of chemical bonds can easily be broken in water?

    • Which type of chemical bonds will not break by placing the solute in water?

  • What is an aqueous solution?

  • What is a hydrophilic substance? Give some examples.

  • What is a hydrophobic substance? Give some examples.

  • How do hydrophilic/hydrophobic substances relate to polar/non-polar molecules?

Solutions

• What is a mole?

• If the molecular mass of glucose is 180, how many grams of glucose would make 1 mol?

• What is molarity? What is the molarity of a solution with 2 mol of solute in 4 L of solution?

• Be able to calculate moles and molarity.

Acids, bases, and the pH scale

• What is pH?

  • What is the pH of pure water?

  • What is an acidic solution? How would it be represented on the pH scale?

  • What is a basic (alkaline) solution? How would it be represented on the pH scale?

• What happens to the pH of a solution as the hydrogen ion concentration increases?

• What is the mathematical relationship between adjacent numbers on the pH scale?

  • How is a solution with a pH of 2 related to a solution with a pH of 3 or a pH of 4?

• How is the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution related to the hydroxide ion concentration?

• What is a buffer? Why are buffers important in biological solutions?

Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life

Organic molecules

• What are the essential elements in all organic molecules or compounds?

• Why is carbon important in biological molecules?

• What are the 6 elements found in biological organic molecules?

• What is the relationship between shape and function in organic and biological molecules?

• What are isomers?

  • What are structural isomers?

  • What are cis-trans isomers?

  • What are enantiomers?

Functional groups

• What are functional groups?

• What are some properties that a functional group can contribute to a molecule?

• What is the structural and molecular formula for each of the following functional groups?

• What are the primary properties of each functional group?

  • hydroxyl group

  • carbonyl group

    • ketone

    • aldehyde

  • carboxyl group

  • amino group

  • sulfhydryl group

  • phosphate group

  • methyl group

Chapter 5: Biological Molecules

Overview

• What are the 4 categories of biological macromolecules that make up all living things?

• What are polymers?

• What are monomers?

• What is dehydration synthesis?

• What is hydrolysis?

Carbohydrates

• What are the functions of carbohydrates?

• Which elements are found in all carbohydrates?

  • What is the ratio in which these elements are typically found?

• What are the monomer subunits that make up carbohydrates?

  • What is the most common monosaccharide?

  • What is the molecular formula and molecular mass for this monosaccharide?

  • What is the common stable structural arrangement for monosaccharides in aqueous solutions?

  • Are monosaccharides polar or non-polar (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)?

• What is a disaccharide?

• What is a polysaccharide?

  • How are starch, glycogen, and cellulose the same and different from each other?

• What is the word ending that typically indicates a carbohydrate?

Lipids

• What are the functions of lipids?

• Are lipids hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

• Are lipids polymers?

• What are the components of a triglyceride?

  • Which functional groups are found on each component of a triglyceride?

  • What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fat?

    • types of covalent bonds, solid vs. liquid

  • What is the structural arrangement of a triglyceride?

• What is a phospholipid?

  • How are phospholipids arranged in a bilayer plasma membrane? Why?

  • What is the structural arrangement of a phospholipid?

• What is a steroid?

  • What is the structural arrangement of a steroid?

  • What steroid is important in animal cell membranes and is a precursor for other steroids?

Proteins

• What are the monomer subunits that make up proteins?

• What is the basic structural arrangement of an amino acid?

• Which functional groups are found on all amino acids?

• What is the role of R-groups in amino acids?

• What are the functions of proteins? Give examples.

• What type of proteins act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions?

• What is a polypeptide?

  • What is the structural arrangement of a polypeptide?

• What is the name given to the bond between amino acids?

• What is the difference between a polypeptide and a protein?

• Why is the specific final shape of a protein important?

• What are the four levels of protein structure?

  • What specifically happens at each level of structure?

  • What are the specific bonds/forces that hold together each level of protein structure?

  • Why is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide important for the shape of the protein?

• What does denaturation of a protein mean?

  • What are some causes of denaturation?

  • Why do proteins function best under optimum pH and optimum temperature conditions?

  • Which levels of protein structure does denaturation affect?

Nucleic acids

• What are the two kinds of nucleic acids?

• What is the function of DNA?

• How can the flow of genetic information be summarized?

• What are the monomer subunits that make up nucleic acids?

• What are the three components in the structure of a nucleotide?

• What makes up the “backbone” of a nucleic acid?

  • What type of bonds holds the backbone together?

• What does antiparallel mean?

  • What is the relevance of the 5’ to 3’ directionality?

• What is a double helix?

• What are the names of the five nitrogenous bases?

  • How do the nitrogenous bases pair with each other?

  • What type of bonds hold two nitrogenous bases together in a complementary pairing?

  • What type of nucleic acid is each nitrogenous base a part of?

  • Be able to create a complementary pairing of a specific DNA or RNA sequence.

• What is the structural arrangement of a nucleic acid?

• What are three ways that RNA differs from DNA?

• What is ATP?

  • How is ATP important in the body?

  • What is the structural arrangement of ATP?

Chapter 6: The Cell

Cell overview

• What are some major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

  • cell wall, flagella, nucleus/nucleoid region, organelles, location and shape of DNA?

Eukaryotic cells

• What is the function of each of the following components of eukaryotic cells?

• Describe the structure of each of the following components of eukaryotic cells.

• Are the following structures found in animal cells, plant cells, or both?

  • cytoplasm

  • cell wall

  • plasma membrane

  • nucleus

  • smooth endoplasmic reticulum

  • rough endoplasmic reticulum

  • ribosomes

  • cytoskeleton

  • Golgi apparatus

  • mitochondria

  • cilia

  • flagella

  • nucleolus

  • lysosomes

  • peroxisomes

  • centrioles

  • microtubules

  • chromosome

  • vacuole

  • chloroplasts

  • thylakoids

  • stroma

  • vesicles

  • centrosome

  • chromatin

  • central vacuole

• Which organelles are part of the endomembrane system?

• Name the parts of a mitochondrion

• How are microtubules arranged in cilia, flagella, and centrioles?

• What is the extracellular matrix?

• What are the major differences between animal and plant cells?

• What are gap junctions?

• What are tight junctions?

• What are desmosomes?

• What are plasmodesmata?

Chapter 7: Membrane Structure and Function

Plasma membrane

• What are the major functions of the plasma membrane?

• What does selective permeability mean?

• How are phospholipids arranged in a plasma membrane?

• How do saturated and unsaturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity?

• What is the role of cholesterol in maintaining optimum membrane fluidity?

• What is the difference between integral and peripheral membrane proteins?

• What are the functions of the different types of membrane proteins?

• What are the functions of glycoproteins in the cell membrane?

• What types of molecules can easily cross the plasma membrane without using membrane proteins?

Passive transport

• What is passive transport?

  • What is a concentration gradient?

  • What is diffusion?

  • What is osmosis?

  • What is facilitated diffusion?

• What is an isotonic solution?

  • What would happen to an animal cell if placed in an isotonic solution?

  • What would happen to a plant cell if placed in an isotonic solution?

• What is a hypertonic solution?

  • What would happen to an animal cell if placed in a hypertonic solution?

  • What would happen to a plant cell if placed in a hypertonic solution?

• What is a hypotonic solution?

  • What would happen to an animal cell if placed in a hypotonic solution?

  • What would happen to a plant cell if placed in a hypotonic solution?

• Water will move by osmosis from a _____tonic solution into a _____tonic solution.

Active transport

• What is active transport?

  • What molecule directly supplies the energy for most active transport?

• What is a sodium-potassium pump?

• What is exocytosis?

• What is endocytosis?

  • What is phagocytosis?

    • What are pseudopodia?

    • What types of things would a cell bring in by phagocytosis?

  • What is pinocytosis?

    • What types of things would a cell bring in by pinocytosis?

  • What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

    • Why is receptor-mediated endocytosis more specific than phagocytosis or pinocytosis?

Chapter 8: Metabolism

Metabolism and Energy

• What is metabolism?

• What is a metabolic pathway?

• What is the difference between anabolic pathways and catabolic pathways?

• What happens with energy in anabolic pathways and catabolic pathways?

• What is energy coupling? What is the role of ATP in energy coupling?

• What is the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy? Give examples of each.

• What happens to the majority of the heat produced by cellular work?

• What is a summary of the first law of thermodynamics?

• What is a summary of the second law of thermodynamics?

• What is the difference between endergonic and exergonic chemical reactions?

• What is the primary source of energy for plants? For animals?

• What is the activation energy of a chemical reaction?

• How are enzymes involved in metabolic pathways?

• What is ATP? What is the function and structure of ATP?

  • Where is energy stored in ATP?

  • How is energy released from ATP?

Enzymes

• What are the functions of enzymes?

• What type of macromolecules are enzymes typically?

• What is the word ending that typically indicates an enzyme?

• What is a catalyst? Why is an enzyme a catalyst?

• What is a substrate? What is an active site? What is a product?

• How is the shape of an enzyme related to its specific function?

• How could less than optimum temperature and pH conditions affect the function of enzymes?

• What are cofactors and coenzymes?

• What is a competitive inhibitor?

  • How would an increase in substrate concentration affect competitive inhibition?

• What is a noncompetitive inhibitor?

• What is an allosteric site?

  • How are allosteric interactions involved in enzyme regulation?

• What is feedback inhibition?

  • How is feedback inhibition involved in metabolic regulation?

Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

Overview

• What is the purpose of cellular respiration?

• Is cellular respiration an anabolic or catabolic pathway?

• What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration?

• Does cellular respiration occur in plant cells, animal cells, or both?

• What are redox reactions?

  • What is oxidation? When a substance is oxidized, does it gain or lose energy?

  • What is reduction? When a substance is reduced, does it gain or lose energy?

Glycolysis

• What is glycolysis?

• Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?

• Does glycolysis require oxygen?

• Why is the first phase of glycolysis called the investment phase?

• Why is the second phase of glycolysis called the payoff phase?

• What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

• When glucose is oxidized in glycolysis, what molecules are reduced?

• Does glycolysis happen in a single or multi step process?

• What are the net end products of glycolysis?

• What is the function of electron shuttles?

• At the end of glycolysis, where is the majority of the energy?

Transition (Pyruvate Oxidation)

• In eukaryotic cells, what organelle will pyruvate enter if oxygen is present?

• How does pyruvate enter the mitochondria and what happens to pyruvate once it enters?

• What are the end products of this transition phase (including products which are released)?

Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle

• Where in the mitochondria does the citric acid cycle take place?

• What products are formed from the complete oxidation of glucose in the citric acid cycle (including products which are released)?

  • From one glucose, how many ATP are produced directly by the citric acid cycle?

  • What is the mechanism which forms ATP in the citric acid cycle?

• What are the electron shuttles and how are they produced during the citric acid cycle?

• What four-carbon molecule must be regenerated so the next Acetyl CoA can enter the cycle?

Electron Transport Chain

• Where specifically are the enzymes of the electron transport chain (ETC) located?

• What is the purpose of the ETC and how are redox reactions involved?

• What element draws electrons down the ETC and acts as a final electron acceptor?

• Through what structure do protons re-enter the mitochondrial matrix?

• What is chemiosmosis? What is oxidative phosphorylation?

• From one glucose, approximately how many ATP molecules are formed by oxidative phosphorylation?

Fermentation

• What is fermentation?

• What is the relationship between glycolysis and fermentation?

• What is alcohol fermentation?

  • What types of cells perform alcohol fermentation?

  • What are the end products of alcohol fermentation?

  • What are some common uses of alcohol fermentation?

• What is lactic acid fermentation?

  • What types of cells perform lactic acid fermentation?

  • What are the end products of lactic acid fermentation?

Alternatives pathways for cellular respiration

• What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

• What types of organic molecules can be used for fuel besides glucose?

• What is beta oxidation?

  • How can the products of beta oxidation be used to produce ATP?

Chapter 10: Photosynthesis

Overview

• What is a heterotroph? What is an autotroph?

• What is the purpose of photosynthesis?

• What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?

• What is the organelle in which photosynthesis occurs?

  • What are thylakoids?

  • What is the stroma?

  • What is chlorophyll?

Light dependent reactions

• What is the goal of the light reactions in photosynthesis?

• Where specifically in the chloroplast do the light reactions occur?

• What is a photosystem? What are the two main complexes of a photosystem?

• Which photosystem functions first in light reactions?

• What is the role of chlorophyll?

• What is a reaction-center complex?

• What molecule replaces the electron lost by the P680 molecule in photosystem II?

  • What is the by-product of this process?

• What is generated in the electron transport chain between photosystem II and photosystem I?

• How will protons return across the thylakoid membrane?

• What is the specific method of ATP production?

• What is generated in the second electron transport chain?

• What are the end products of the light reactions that are used in the Calvin cycle?

• What is the difference between linear and cyclic electron flow?

  • What products are generated during cyclic electron flow?

Light independent reaction (Calvin cycle)

• What is the goal of the Calvin cycle?

• Where specifically in the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle occur?

• What are the three phases of the Calvin cycle?

• What happens in each of the three phases of the Calvin cycle?

  • What is carbon fixation?

  • What is the function of rubisco?

  • How is energy from ATP and NADPH transferred during the reduction phase?

  • What is regenerated during the regeneration phase? Why is this necessary?

• What are the end products of the Calvin cycle?

• What happens to the ADP, NADP⁺, and P_i produced in the Calvin cycle?

• After the Calvin cycle, where is most of the energy stored that originally came from light?

• Do plants have mitochondria, and if so, what is their purpose?

Chapter 11.5: Cell Communication

Apoptosis

• What is apoptosis?

• What are the general steps of how apoptosis occurs?

• What are some situations in which apoptosis might typically occur?

Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle

Genetic Material

• What type of organic biological molecule carries genetic material?

• Where is the genetic material located in a prokaryotic cell? In a eukaryotic cell?

• What is a gene?

• What is a genome?

• What is an allele?

• What is chromatin?

• What is a chromosome?

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

• What are the steps of binary fission?

• How is prokaryotic DNA different from eukaryotic DNA?

The Cell Cycle of Eukaryotic Cells

Interphase

• What is the G₀ phase, and how is it relevant to cell division?

• What percentage of the cell cycle is spent in interphase?

• What are the stages of interphase?

• What takes place during the G₁ phase?

• What takes place during the S phase?

  • What happens to the amount of DNA material during the S phase?

  • What happens to the number of chromosomes during the S phase?

  • How is a chromatid different than a chromosome?

  • What is a centromere?

  • How many total chromosomes do humans have? How many pairs?

• What takes place during the G₂ phase?

Mitosis

• What is mitosis?

• Why do human cells undergo mitosis and cell division?

• What are the stages of mitosis in order of occurrence?

  • What events happen during Prophase (the first phase of mitosis)?

    • What happens with the chromosomes?

    • What are centrosomes? What do the centrosomes do during prophase?

  • What events happen during Prometaphase (the second phase of mitosis)?

    • What happens with the chromosomes?

    • What has happened to the nuclear membrane?

    • What is a spindle apparatus?

      • What are functions of the two different types of spindle fibers?

      • What is a kinetochore?

    • Where are the centrosomes?

  • What happens during Metaphase (the third phase of mitosis)?

  • What happens during Anaphase (the fourth phase of mitosis)?

  • What events happen during Telophase (the fifth phase of mitosis)?

    • How many nuclei are there?

    • What happens to the chromosomes?

    • What happens to the spindle apparatus?

Cytokinesis

• What is cytokinesis?

• How do animal cells divide? What is a cleavage furrow?

• How do plant cells divide? What is the difference between a cell plate and a cell wall?

• How many daughter cells will there be after mitosis and cytokinesis?

• How are the daughter cells similar to or different from the parent cell?

Regulation of the Cell Cycle

• What are checkpoints?

• When would critical checkpoints occur?

• If a cell fails at a checkpoint, what are three different things that may occur?

• What is density-dependent inhibition?

• What is anchorage dependence?

• If a cell loses its ability to self-regulate, what would be the result?

Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

Meiosis Overview

• What does diploid or 2n mean?

• What does haploid or n mean?

• What is meiosis?

• What is the difference between a sex cell and somatic cell?

• In what type of cells does meiosis occur?

• How many daughter cells are produced in meiosis?

• How are the daughter cells similar to or different from the parent cell in meiosis?

• What is a gamete? What types of cells in animals are gametes?

• What is fertilization?

• What is a zygote?

• What are homologous chromosomes?

Alternation of Generation

• What is alternation of generations?

• What type of organisms exhibit this type of life cycle?

• What is a sporophyte? What is a spore?

• What is a gametophyte?

Meiosis I

• What events take place during Prophase I?

  • What happens to the nucleus?

  • Where are the centrosomes?

  • What happens to the chromosomes?

    • What is homologous pairing? What is a tetrad?

    • What is synapsis?

    • What is recombination and crossing over?

    • What is a chiasmata?

• What takes place during Metaphase I?

  • How are the tetrads arranged during metaphase I?

• What happens during Anaphase I?

  • What specifically separates during Anaphase I?

• What happens during Telophase I?

• What happens during cytokinesis?

• At the end of Meiosis I, how many daughter cells are there?

• At the end of Meiosis I, are the daughter cells haploid or diploid?

Meiosis II

• What happens during Interkinesis (between Meiosis I and Meiosis II)? What does NOT happen?

• What happens during Prophase II?

• What happens during Metaphase II?

• What happens during Anaphase II?

• What happens during Telophase II and Cytokinesis?

• At the end of Meiosis II, how many daughter cells are there?

• At the end of Meiosis II, how are the daughter cells similar to or different from the original parent cell? From each other?

• At the end of Meiosis II, are the daughter cells haploid or diploid?

Promotors of variation within a species

• Why is variation within a species important?

• How does recombination promote variation?

• What is independent assortment, and how does it promote variation?

• How does having two parents (sexual reproduction) promote variation?

• How could variation occur if a species relies only on mitosis (asexual reproduction)?

Chapter 14: Mendelian Genetics

Genetics Overview

• What is heredity?

• What is a gene?

• What is an allele?

• What does homozygous mean?

• What does heterozygous mean?

• What is a dominant allele, and when is it expressed?

• What is a recessive allele, and when is it expressed?

• How many alleles does each diploid individual in a population carry for a particular gene?

• What is a genotype?

• What are the three possible genotypes for a particular gene with alleles A and a?

• What is a phenotype?

• What is true-breeding?

Mendel’s Laws

• What is Mendel’s Law of Segregation?

  • This law has its basis in which phase of meiosis?

• What is Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment?

  • This law has its basis in which phase of meiosis?

Mendelian Genetics

• What is a Punnett square? Draw a Punnett square to show all the possibilities of the following.

• If a homozygous dominant parent and a homozygous recessive parent produce offspring, what will the genotype and phenotype be for the first-generation (F₁) offspring?

• If two of the heterozygous offspring from the F₁ generation were crossed, what would be the possible genotypes and phenotypes for the F₂ generation?

• What is a test cross?

  • If the result of a test cross is 100% dominant, what was the genotype of the unknown parent?

  • If the result of a test cross is 50% dominant and 50% recessive, what was the genotype of the unknown parent?

• What is the difference between a monohybrid cross and a dihybrid cross?

More Complex Inheritance Patterns

• What is complete dominance?

• What is incomplete dominance? Give an example.

• What is codominance? Give an example.

• What are the different alleles in human blood types?

  • What are the different phenotypes for human blood type?

  • How many different genotype possibilities are there for human blood type? What are they, and what would be the resulting phenotype for each?

• What is pleiotropy? Give an example.

• What is epistasis? Give an example.

• What is polygenic inheritance? Give an example.

• What factors other than genotype could affect phenotype?

Inheritance Analysis and Disorders

• What is the purpose of a pedigree chart?

  • If a person lacks a dominant trait, what is their genotype for that trait?

  • If two parents who both exhibit a particular dominant trait have one or more children without that trait, what is the genotype of the parents?

• What is a recessively inherited disorder?

• What is a dominantly inherited disorder?

• What is a karyotype and what is its purpose?

Chapter 15: The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

Morgan’s Expansion of Mendel’s Research

• What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?

• What is a wild type?

Sex-linked Inheritance

• What are autosomes? How many do humans have?

• What are the sex chromosomes? How many do humans have?

  • What is the genotype of a male? What is the genotype of a female?

  • What are the odds that a child will be male? Draw a Punnett square to demonstrate this.

• Do all of the genes on the X chromosome have corresponding genes on the Y chromosome?

• What is an X-linked gene?

• Why is a male much more likely to display X-linked recessive traits than a female?

• What is X inactivation?

  • What is a Barr body?

  • Will the same X chromosome be active in every cell in the body?

  • How does the tortoiseshell cat show X inactivation?

Linked genes

• What are linked genes?

• How can linked genes affect inheritance of specific traits?

• How does the distance between two genes on a chromosome affect the likelihood of crossing over and recombination?

• What is a genetic map?

Abnormal Chromosome Number

• What is aneuploidy?

• What is nondisjunction?

  • What happens when nondisjunction occurs in Anaphase I of Meiosis? How would the gametes be affected?

  • What happens when nondisjunction occurs in Anaphase II of Meiosis? How would the gametes be affected?

• What is monosomy?

• What is trisomy? What is the most common example of trisomy in humans?

Alterations of Chromosome Structure

• What is a deletion?

• What is a duplication?

• What is an inversion?

• What is translocation?

Chapter 16: DNA Replication

A Review of DNA

• What type of information is carried on DNA?

• What are the subunits (monomers) of DNA (polymer)?

• What are the three parts of a nucleotide?

• How is the backbone of a DNA molecule held together? How are the two strands held together?

• How do the nitrogenous bases pair with each other?

• Why is the specific pairing of nitrogenous bases important?

• Are the two strands of a DNA molecule oriented in the same or opposite directions? What is this called?

DNA replication basics

• Why does DNA replication occur?

• What does semiconservative mean?

• In what direction will DNA synthesis always happen?

• What is the origin of replication?

• In what direction will replication proceed from the origin of replication?

• Why are the 5’ and 3’ ends of DNA and RNA important?

Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes

• How is DNA different in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes?

• How many origins of replication will occur in a prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic DNA molecule?

• What is a replication bubble?

DNA replication

• What are the functions of helicase?

• What is the function of single strand binding proteins?

• What is the function of topoisomerase?

• What is the function of primase?

  • How will the short strand created by primase differ from DNA?

• What is the function of DNA polymerase III?

• What is the function of DNA polymerase I?

• What is the leading strand?

  • In what direction will DNA polymerase move relative to the replication fork?

• What is the lagging strand?

  • In what direction will DNA polymerase move relative to the replication fork?

  • What are Okazaki fragments? Why do they form?

• What is the function of DNA ligase?

• What is the purpose of telomeres? Are they present in prokaryotes or eukaryotes only?

Chapter 17: Gene Expression (from gene to protein)

Overview

• What is gene expression?

• What is the central dogma of biology?

• What is transcription?

• What are the differences between DNA and RNA?

• What is translation?

• What is the genetic code?

The genetic code

• What is a codon?

• Why do some amino acids have multiple codons?

• Why is a correct reading frame important?

• Why is the genetic code considered a universal code?

Transcription

• What are the three phases of transcription?

• What is the difference between the DNA template strand and the coding strand?

• What is the enzyme that binds to the DNA template strand?

  • Where specifically does this molecule bind?

  • What additional proteins are necessary for transcription?

• In what direction will the RNA strand be constructed?

• What specifically is produced during transcription?

• What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic mRNA?

• Is mRNA a permanent transcript of the DNA?

Eukaryotic mRNA modification

• How are the end segments of the mRNA strand modified?

  • What are the functions of these special ends?

• What are introns?

• What are exons?

• What is the difference between a primary and a mature transcript?

• What is alternative RNA spicing?

  • Why is this significant?

• Where does the mRNA go after modification?

Translation

• What are ribosomes?

  • Where in the cell are ribosomes found?

  • What are the different parts of a ribosome?

  • What type of RNA is found in a ribosome?

• What is the function of a tRNA molecule?

  • What is an anticodon?

• What events take place during the initiation phase of translation?

  • Which end of the mRNA does the small ribosomal subunit bind to?

  • Where does the first tRNA bind?

  • How does the tRNA bind?

  • What does the tRNA carry?

• What events take place during the elongation phase of translation?

  • What are the three sites for tRNA within a ribosome, and what happens at each site?

  • In what direction does the ribosome translocate along the mRNA?

  • As the polypeptide elongates, where is the completed portion located?

• What terminates translation?

  • What is the function of a release factor?

• What are polysomes?

Mutations

• What are point mutations?

  • What are the consequences if mutations occur during replication?

  • What are the consequences if mutations occur during transcription?

  • What are the consequences if mutations occur during translation?

• What is a silent mutation, and what are the consequences?

• What is a missense mutation, and what are the consequences?

• What is a nonsense mutation, and what are the consequences?

• What is a frameshift mutation, and what are the consequences?

  • What are some causes of a frameshift mutation?

Chapter 18: Regulation of Gene Expression

Prokaryotic Gene Regulation

• What is an operon?

• What is the promotor site?

• What is the operator?

• What is a regulator molecule?

  • What is a repressor?

  • What is an inducer?

  • What is a corepressor?

• What type of operon is a trp operon?

• What type of operon is a lac operon?

Eukaryotic Gene Regulation

• What is the purpose for histone acetylation?

• What is the purpose for DNA methylation?

• What are transcription factors and why are they important?

• What are enhancers?

• What are control elements?

• What are transcription activators?

• How does alternative RNA splicing affect which proteins are produced in a cell?

• How can the amount of final product be controlled at the transcription level?

• How can the amount of final product be controlled at the translation level?

• What are noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs, such as miRNAs and siRNAs) and how do they affect translation

• How can regulation of gene expression occur after translation is completed?

Cancer

• What is cancer?

• What are oncogenes?

• What are proto-oncogenes?

• What are tumor-suppressor genes?