agression- aqa pyschology a level

What is the limbic system?

hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

What is the amygdala responsible for?

aggression and fear

Reactivity of amygdala

predictor of aggression

What did Papez & Maclean compromise the amygdala as?

how animals assess and respond to environmental threats

method of Gospic et al

mildly provoke patients in the fMRI. Then give them benzodiazepine and see results.

results of benzodiazepine

Fast and heightened response in the amygdala when patients were provoked. Benzo decreased activity in the amygdala and reduced aggression

what does serotonin do?

slows down the brain and neural activity

normal levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex...

linked with reduce firing

what does low serotonin cause?

less self control

What did Virkkunen et al find?

violent-non impulsive had significantly more serotonin breakdown product in cerebrospinal fluid than violent-impulsive offenders.

men are more...

aggressive than women

why may men be more aggressive than women?

they have 6-7x the amount of testosterone than women

what does castration of animals show about the effects of testosterone?

removing source of testosterone reduces aggression, then if reinjected with testosterone it restores aggressive behaviour.

what did Dolan et al find?

A positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviours in a sample of 60 offenders (men) in UK maximum security hospitals.

Kluver and Bucy

studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to limbic system, also studied the amygdala's role in emotions. lost all understanding of social hierarchy.

Strength of biological explanation for aggression

• research on drugs

• paroxetine reduces aggressive behaviour

free will and determinism for aggression evaluation

• legal system rejects this as it removes responsibility

• also is a cycle as suggesting they have no control over their behaviour means they should not be free to walk the streets.

• highly deterministic

What did Berman et al find?

the paroxetine group gave less shocks and less intense shocks than the placebo group in a lab based shocking game. Causal link in serotonin and aggression.

how is aggression studied in terms on genetics?

through heritability

Coccaro et al (1997)

Study using adult twin pairs (MZ twins) show nearly 50% of aggressive behaviour due to genetic factors.

adoption studies and aggression

researchers found a greater similarity in levels of aggression (41%) between adopted children and their biological parents than between them and their adoptive parents then this suggests genetic factors

what do adoption studies help us do?

untangle the contributions of the environment and genes in aggression.

MAOA gene is known as...

warrior gene

What is the MAOA gene responsible for?

production of the protein monoamine oxidase

What does monoamine oxidase do?

metabolises noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine

what happens is there is a dysfunction in the MAOA gene?

neurotransmitters will not be broken down in the brain

what happens if adrenaline isn't broken down in the brain?

We end up with too much adrenaline

what does mean MAOA-l

less MAOA in system, this means there is less MAOA to break down neurotransmitters in body system

MAOA and serotonin

high levels of serotonin, due to less metabolism of serotonin

MAOA mice experiment

• genetically produced mice with a knockout of the MAOA gene

• these mice had extremely high levels aggression

gene-environment interaction MAOA

The MAOA-L gene is only related to adult aggression when combined with early traumatic life experiences

diathesis-stress

As applied in psychopathology, a view that assumes that individuals predisposed toward a particular mental disorder will be particularly affected by stress and will then manifest abnormal behaviour.

Brunner 1993

• studied 28 aggressive criminals from large Dutch family

• crimes such as rape, murder and assault

• These men all had a the MAOA-L gene variant

problem with twin studies evaluation

• may lack validity

• DZ twins may not share the same environment to the same extent as MZ twins

• equal environment assumption

• this means concordance rates are inflated and genetic influences on aggression may not be as great as twin studies suggest.

MAOA mice experiment evaluation

• Cannot be extrapolated to humans due to our completely different brain

Caspi et al 2002

• 1000+ male participants from childhood to adults

• followed 3-26

• noticed early years abuse (3-11) and recorded

• looked at variance of MAOA gene

• Looked at reports of aggressive behaviour by age 26

Caspi et al 2002 findings

• maltreatment was a significant predictor of aggression

• MAOA-L had no significant effect on aggression

• MAOA-L and maltreatment had a significant effect ob aggression

• 85% of men who had maltreatment and MAOA-L went on to be aggressive

biological reductionism aggression

Aggression is a complex emotional reaction and the genetic explanation simplifies it to an extent where the MAOA is blamed for the persons behaviour. A more holistic view should be taken.

nature v nurture

• direct cause of aggression point to genes as a direct cause, including twin and adoption studies.

• however, it is clear the environmental factors in someone's life also play a large role into how the genes are expressed.

evolutionary explanations of animal aggression

ethological explanation

Ethology

The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments. Viewing behaviour as a evolutionary adaptive trait.

the main function of aggression is ...

adaptive

aim of animal aggression

• more territory

• more female mating rights

• more food

• climb the groups social hierarchy (dominance)

what is a ritual?

series of behaviours carried out in a set order

what did Lorenz fine out about ritualistic behaviour?

• same species fights provided little physical damage

• ends fight with ritual appeasement displays, these show an acceptance of defeat

Why is this adaptive?

if every aggressive encounter ended in death that could threaten the species existence.

What is an IRM?

IRM are hard wired brain networks that respond to specific stimuli by initiating a fixed action pattern, a set sequence of behaviours.

what six features does a FAP have?

• stereotypical behaviour, unchanging sequence of behaviours

• universal, same in every individual

• unaffected by learning

• Ballistic, once started it doesn't stop

• single purpose, only one use

• a response to an identifiable specific sign stimulus

What did Tinbergen do?

• during spring mating season for male sticklebacks a red spot appears

• if they see another male a FAP is triggered

• presented them with wooden blocks with red spots

• triggered IRM

what did Tinbergen find?

• regardless of shape, if red spot then attack or aggressive display

• if there was no red spot there was no aggression even when shaped as a realistic stickleback

• unchanging from one encounter to another

• once triggered the FAP ran its course with no further stimulus

ritualistic evaluation of the ethological approach

• not just ritualistic behaviour

• Jane Goodall observed a four year chimp war where one community killed all the members of another group

• violence continued even when chimp gave appeasement signs

• this shows the view that fights are harmless and self limiting is wrong

ritualistic evaluation issues and debates

• Goodall's research supports the idea that there are innate aggressive tendencies likely to be present in humans.

• she was criticized for publishing her work as they thought saying that aggression is innate may excuse human violence.

• deterministic view that our aggression is innate and we have no control

genetics and evolution evaluation

• evidence that supports genetic basis of aggression

• Wilson and Daly found it was adaptive behaviour and therefore genetically based.

• twin studies and adoption studies also back this up

• this supports innate predisposition of aggression

• adaptable, heritable and determined

FAPs are not fixed evaluation

• Lorenz saw FAPs as innate and unchanging

• Hunt suggests FAPs are greatly influenced by environmental factors and learning

• for example, each movement in a FAP varies from situation even in the same individual

• many ethologists now call it modal pattern behaviour

• therefore aggressive behaviour is more more likely in animals, especially humans

other approaches evaluation?

• ethologists argue that aggression is an innate instinct

• important implication that humans will be aggressive and fight each other (FAP)

• cognitive approach suggests aggression is under rational control and more affected by learning experiences

Slackett (1966)

Isolated infant monkeys were shoiwn pictures of aggressive and non aggressive of other monkeys. They became defensive of aggressive photo. Showing an innate set of behaviours. FAP.

Evolutionary explanation of aggression

aggression serves as an important function in terms of both individual survival as well as reproductive potential.

what is environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA)

behaviours witnessed today would have evolved as a reaction to the environment 10,000-5mill years ago.

motivator of aggression in males

sexual jealousy

paternity uncertainty

the fact that a man cannot be sure that the children born to his female partner are his. This is cuckoldry.

why is cuckoldry a problem?

Any investment of offspring that isn't his own is a waste. Contributes to rival genes and leaves father with less resources to invest in his own future offspring.

psychological methods to reduce cuckoldry

sexual jealousy which leads to aggression in the form of domestic violence

Direct guarding (Wilson and Daly)

A man's vigilance over a partner's behaviour -checking who they have seen -checking their phone -where they have been

Negative inducements (Wilson and Daly)

Threats of dire consequences for infidelity e.g. suicide

what does Buss believe?

jealousy is a psychological adaptation, an alarm that is designed to go off whenever we detect signs of a partner's potential infidelity to minimize our reproductive losses.

Wilson et al (1995)

Women reported their partner used male strategies were 2x likely to suffer from physical violence at the hands of their partner. 73% of these women required medical attention. 53% feared for their life.

Bullying

• characteristics of bullies are attractive to women, therefore this behaviour is naturally selected and passed on to further generations.

• women bully to secure fidelity, which means the men can provide resources for future offspring.

coercive control

Behaviours intended to monitor and control or threaten an intimate partner. This can include gaslighting, isolation, financial abuse, degrading, harassment, threatening and assuming consent.

Sadalla (1987) supporting research

Men described as highly dominant are rated as more attractive and vice versa. Men described as aggressive and dominant were not found attractive. This shows that aggression doesn't improve reproductive success, but a related characteristic does.

cultural differences of evolutionary theory

• some cultures being aggressive is frowned upon and can run the risk of the individual having their status within the group diminished.

• !Kung San people of Botswana

gender differences of evolutionary theory

• women have higher verbal aggression and men have higher physical aggression

• Campbell suggests if not adaptive for women to be physically aggressive to look after her offspring

• this explains why men and women differ in uses of aggression

cultural differences counterpoint

Richard Lee found that the homicide rate within the !Kung community is high for such peaceful people. This may be due to Thomas having observer bias and this means that observations from the outside may not be useful. Culture can override innate predispositions.

real world application to bullying

• Ellis et al found giving bullies roles in school rather than needing that status from bullying will reduce it.

• viewing as adaptive may lead to more effective anti- bullying situations

frustration-aggression hypothesis

A hypothesis which states that the blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that leads to aggression.

What is catharsis?

the process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions.

why may aggression not be released?

• punishment

• abstract frustration

• cause may be unavailable at the time

Displacement aggression

aggression is displaced to other sources

when does frustration increase?

When our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong. We expect gratification. We are in close proximity to achieving a goal.

weapon effect

the tendency that the likelihood of aggression will increase by the mere presence of weapons.

Berkowitz and LePage (1967)

• Angered people (by shocking them) in a room with either badminton equipment, or a gun lying around.

• In a separate task, people in the gun condition gave more intense shocks to another subject. 6/4.

• Demonstrates that aggression can be primed.

Russell Geen (1968) procedure

• complete a jigsaw

• impossible, blocked by confederate, insulted by confederate

• gave highest strength shocks to confederate was insulted group, interfered group then the impossible work.

individual differences evaluation

• individual differences in how people respond to frustration

• suggest F-A does not fully explain

• better explained with nature rather than nurture

• MAOA-L, serotonin and testosterone.

Catharsis Evaluation

• Bushman found those who hit a punching bag when frustrated were actually getting more angry as a result.

• the better people feel after, the more aggressive they are.

• this shows a central assumption of the F-A hypothesis may not be valid.

Doesn't explain cold blooded aggression

• planned and calculated aggression isn't understood by the F-A theory

• Many aggressive acts such as warfare and premeditated murder are not reactive aggression so F-A cannot explain.

• This shows many aggressive acts cannot be explained by the F-A theory

Unjustified frustration v justified aggression

• unjustified aggression is more likely to lead to aggression

• this has real world application, many systems in order to reduce aggression on vunerable staff

• by providing with information it justifies the delay and decreases the likelihood that aggression will occur

SLT of aggression

ARRM. Aggression is acquired through a process of observational learning in social contexts. Role models.

Poulin and Boivin (2000) - social psychological explanations of aggression

• aggressive boys aged 9-12 formed friendships with other aggressive boys

• mutually reinforced by modelling

• positive consequences (vicarious reinforcement)

• More aggressive behaviour repeated according to SLT

Poulin and Boivin (2000) counterpoint

Only found a correlation for proactive aggression (to get what they wanted off peers) rather than in reactive aggression. They tended to observe but not imitate them. Therefore SLT may be a weaker explanation.

Nature/Nurture SLT

• SLT favours the nurture side of the nature nurture debate. Through interaction with environment and early childhood experiences.

• Many studies indicating that serotonin and testosterone in the brain have a large impact in determining aggressive behaviour.

• SLT denies that humans are innately aggressive and claims that the learning of behaviour through observation leads to aggression.

• More interactionist than that.

difficulty showing cause and effect SLT

It is difficult to show cause and effect in real life aggression, because it was a lab study that Bandura carried out. However, Poulin showed this is the case.

Deindividuation

loss of personal identity that occurs in certain situations that increase our anonymity. This causes out behaviour to be less constrained by social norms, which leads to us losing our inhibitions.

what happens due to deindividuation?

Sense of autonomy and personal responsibility for own actions is diminished - instead the individual is governed by the norms and expectations of the group.

social identity model of deindividuation

Reicher (1987) explains private situations also lead to deindividuation.

What is our behaviour like in an individuated state?

Rational and normative

What is our behaviour like in a deindividuated state?

w We lose awareness, stop monitoring and regulating own behaviours and ignore social norms.

What are the conditions Zimbardo believes deindividuation takes place?

Darkness, drugs, alcohol, masks, uniforms and disguises.

Dodd (1985) procedure

Asked 229 students what would they do if they could do anything humanly possible without responsibility.

Dodd findings

36% would have some form of antisocial behaviour. 26% would have actual criminal acts. 9% were prosocial behaviour.

Practical application of deindividuation

• By understanding that deindividuation can be decreased preventative measures can be put in place.

• ID for social media.

• cameras in football stadiums.

Anonymity of the victim - deindividuation

• When a victim is anonymised of dehumanised the aggressor may find it easier to rationalize harmful actions.

• this occurs because the emotional connection or empathy towards the victim is reduced.