Sport and Society U6

Fair play

Fair competition, respect, friendship, team spirit, equality, sport without doping, respect for written and unwritten rules such as integrity

Sportsmanship

Conforming to the rules, spirit and etiquette of the sport

Abiding by both written and unwritten rules

Respecting opponents and officials

Accepting contract to compete

Examples of sportsmanship

Shaking hands with the opposition

Kicking the ball out of play in football if opposition player is injured

Raising your hand if tennis ball clips the net

Gamesmanship

Bending the written rules to gain an advantage

Why is gamesmanship bad?

Destroying the spirit of the game

Lack of respect for the sport, officials, opposition and teammates

Examples of gamesmanship

Trash talk

Toilet breaks in tennis

Feigning injury to time waste in football

Why is fair play and sportsmanship important in sport?

Ensures equality of competition

Ensures sport is enjoyable

Provides sport with moral and ethical values

Provides role models

If sport is well respected, it can increase participation

Socialisation

Sport can attract sponsorship

Olympic ideal

Why has sportsmanship decreased and gamesmanship increased?

Lombardian ethic - win at all costs approach

Commercialisation of sport - financial rewards and celebrity status for winning are too tempting

Big sponsorship contracts which are dependant on winning

Pressures from all areas - coaches, fans, country

Use of performance enhancing drugs is now more the ‘norm' - level playing field

What impact can gamesmanship have on sport?

Disrupted play

Tension

Violence - fans and players

Negative role model effect

Sport as a whole is devalued

Bad reputations leading to lost sponsorship or reduced participation

4 dimensions of the Sports Ethic

Sacrifices

Striving for excellence

Playing through pain

No limits of possibility

Sacrifices dimension of the sports ethic

Unwavering commitment

Live up to expectations of coaches and fellow athletes

Make sacrifices to stay in the game

Sacrifices are made out of love for the game and not for money

Striving for excellence dimension of the sports ethic

Constantly seeking improvement and perfection

Winning symbolises improvement and establishes distinction

Work hard to achieve this

Playing through pain dimension of the sports ethic

Do not give in to the pressure, pain or fear

Accept the risk of injury and the challenge of the competition

Don’t back down from challenges, challenges involve moral and physical courage

Injured players set an example of over-conformity to others

No limits of possibility dimension of the sports ethic

An athlete does not accept a situation without trying to change it, overcome it, or beat the odds

They ignore external limits

Driven by what they must do as athletes

Deviance

Behaviour that is at a tangent to the norm

Behaviour that is outside the norms and values of society

Relative deviance

When it is acceptable within the sport but wouldn’t be in society e.g. boxing

Absolute deviance

When it’s wrong in all circumstances, in sport and society e.g. deliberately causing harm to someone on/off the field

Coakley’s Normal Distribution Approach to deviance

According to Coakley, most actions in sport fall within a ‘normally accepted range' - normal behaviour which most people follow.

Deviance occurs outside of this range - it can be either positive or negative

Negative deviance

When a coach, player or official behaves in a way that knowingly breaks the rules of that sport to gain an advantage

Ignoring or rejecting norms

Examples of negative deviance

Hooliganism

Violence

Drug taking

Fielding illegible players

Positive deviance

Actions based on uncritically accepting norms and being willing to follow them to extreme degrees

Examples of positive deviance

Over training

Playing whilst injured

Aggression

The intention to harm another human being, either verbally or mentally

Hostile aggression

Committed in response to a perceived threat or insult

Instrumental aggression

Committed with provocation to obtain an outcome

Reasons for deviance and on-field violence

Temperature

Partisan crowd - very loyal and passionate crowd

Pain/fatigue

Embarrassment

Frustration

Desire to win/Lombardian ethic

Pressure from sponsors/crowds

Over arousal

May be asked to do so by coach or teammates

Importance of the game

Financial rewards

Player lacks moral/ethical restraints for personal behaviour

Deviant behaviour is more common so more socially accepted

Strategies to reduce on-field violence

Video technology

Punishments

Educate players 

Greater rewards for fair play. Praise players who demonstrate good sportsmanship e.g. FIFA fair play award

Avoid win at all costs mentality - Lombardian ethic

More authority for officials

Promote positive role models

Sub off over-aroused players

Use arousal lowering techniques

Teach players to walk away from the situation

Point out responsibilities to the team

Hooliganism

Aggressive, anti-social behaviour by people within a crowd of spectators, often violent and usually directed at opposition spectator, sometimes directed at officials, stewards, players and police.

Types of hooliganism

Fighting

Chanting/booing

Rioting and violent behaviour

Vandalism

Match interference

Social media abuse

Reasons for off-field violence and hooliganism

Alcohol

Thrill seeking

Release (of anger), in the form of aggressive behaviour

Part of football ritual/ethos

International rivalry

Past conflicts

Tribalism theory - protecting ‘territory’ from invasion

Expression of masculinity

Bourgeoisification

Bourgeoisification

Process by which individuals or groups adopt the values, behaviours and characteristics of the middle class

Consequences of hooliganism who it affects

The sport/club

Sporting authority

Society

Individuals

Consequences of hooliganism to the sport/sporting authority

Damage to football’s reputation e.g. team, club, FIFA, FA etc

Damage to reputation of the country and their fans

Bans and fines from competition

Loss of sporting values

Separation of fans and policing of them

Play behind closed doors

Negative role models

Spectator attendance declines

Sponsors/commercial deals withdrawn

Negative impact for histing future events

Consequences of hooliganism to the society and individual

Damage to reputation of the country and their fans

Decline in relationship with local community/other countries

Fear for local communities

Cost of policing events increases

Damage to local property and cost of repairs

All supporters treated as hooligans

Injury to the people involved

Banning of supporters

Strategies to reduce off field hooliganism

Ban/control alcohol

Tougher deterrents - bans/fines/prison

CCTV

Legislation

Responsible reporting

Create family atmosphere

Segregation of fans

More policing/stewards

Sharing of police intelligence

Use of high profile role models to appeal for good behaviour

Fair play charters/awards

Players display sportsmanship - role models

Clubs not making inflammatory statements

Strict control on ticket sales

Educate supporters - FA’s No Room for Racism campaign

Mid-day kick offs to limit alcohol consumption

Doping

The use of or distribution of any substance which could artificially improve the athlete’s performance by increasing their mental and/or physical condition

Ergogenic acid

Any substance which enhances sporting performance - legal or illegal

Legal ergogenic aids

Isotonic drinks

Caffeine

Protein shakes

Creatine

Illegal ergogenic aids

Anabolic steroids allow athletes to train longer, harder and recover quicker. This enables them to increase muscle size and strength.

Stimulants increase alertness and concentration while reducing fatigue

EPO stimulates RBC production

Blood doping is removal of blood then re-injection to boost red blood cell count and therefore oxygen utilisation.

Human Growth Hormone builds muscle

Diuretics used to remove fluid and mask other drugs

Narcotic Analgesics used to mask pain caused by injury or fatigue

Beta blockers used to slow HR down

Why are drugs banned?

Health risks

Negative role models

Encourages more athletes to take drugs to level the playing field

Demonstrates that winning at any cost is acceptable - Lombardian ethic

Immoral - goes against Olympic Ideal

Devalues concept of achieving as a result of effort

Would go against what the majority believe to be correct

Could cause international tensions

Reasons for using PEDs

To win/improve performance/increase aggression

For real medical need

To get sponsorship

Increase reputation

Make money

Look like role model

Prevent injury/fatigue

Pressure from country/coaches/sport

Institutionalised cheating

Believe they won’t get caught

Immortality

Accidentally

Therapeutic Use Exemption

Ensures athletes can be treated for medical conditions even if the treatment involves using a prohibited substance or method while avoiding the risk of being sanctioned

Who is involved in the battle against drugs?

WADA

NADO

UKAD

WADA

World Anti-Doping Agency

Main international body responsible for the fight against drugs in sport

WADA will ban substances and methods if they meet at least two of the three criteria:

Enhance performance

Threat to athlete health

Violate the spirit of sport

NADO

National Anti-Doping Organisations

The entities responsible at national level for the anti-doping programmes in a country

They work with WADA to make rules, devise testing protocol, administer tests, conduct investigations, offer education etc

UKAD

UK Anti-Doping

Helps athletes understand and follow the rules, runs campaigns like 100%ME which campaigns for clean sport

In competition drug testing

Athletes can be selected at random or due to a notable performance

Out of competition drug testing

Takes place anytime, anywhere with no notice

The Whereabouts system was introduced in 2009 and means if an athlete is selected in a registered testing pool they will have to provide their location for 1 hour each day. If plans change, they must update the APP

Lab tests

Most doping products can be tested using mass spectrometry - where a urine sample is subjected to a beam of electrons. Each substance the sample contains has a unique fingerprint.

Drug tests take place at accredited labs across the world but they must comply with WADA’s compliance and international standards.

When tested, urine and/or blood samples are provided with an official present. A and B bottles are sealed and sent to WADA accredited labs. Sample A is analysed, B is stored unless the A sample suggests some use of PEDs, in which case sample B will also be analysed.

Issues with lab testing

Some substances are so small they may not be detected

Accredited labs do work but they must be monitored regularly

Drugs testing is very expensive and not all countries have the resources

It is believed that for every test developed to detect doping the latest PEDs are 10 years ahead of the test

Biological passport

An electronic document that contains biological info about the athlete

It monitors the change of important biological markers that will alert officials to possible drug use

It reveals the effects of doping rather than detecting the substance itself and was a way to overcome the issues with lab testing

Issues with biological passports

Some athletes are upset about WADA having this fata so refuse to participate which can lead to them being banned

Some data is misinterpreted leading to false positive results

Little consolation to athletes coming second if the first place athlete is found guilty of doping 2 years later

How can performers be deterred from using PEDs?

Bans

Strip guilty athletes of medals

Random/out of season testing/no warning tests

Make sure performers know what is and is not allowed and dangers - education

Reform/devise structured approach/strong anti-doping culture

Campaigns - 100%ME campaign

Better coordination between organisations/shared policies/policies e.g. WADA

More funding for testing programmes/improved technology for testing/testing centres

Use of positive/negative role models/name and shame

Funding/sponsorship received by athlete to be returned if found guilty/contracts contain clauses if caught doping

Use of athlete biological passport

Why should doping be allowed in sport?

Everyone’s doing it - level playing field

It’s an individual’s free choice

Legal ergogenic aids are used

Impossible for WADA to keep up

Money could be spent elsewhere e.g. drug education

Some athletes unfairly found guilty - testing can produce inaccurate results

Some athletes took PEDs unknowingly

Expensive/limited number of testing facilities

Not all sports have the budget

Difficult to agree which PED should be included in banned lists

Why shouldn’t doping be allowed in sport?

Uphold the traditions of sport

Cheats are caught so all competitors are equal

No country or performer has an advantage

Cost can be shared by all sports

Some countries don’t adhere to rules so international competition isn’t fair

Harmful to health

Poor example for young performers that they may follow

Wouldn’t allow true ability of athlete’s to be contested

Functions of the media

Inform

Educate

Entertain

Interpret

Advertise

Inform - function of the media

Media offer timely facts and opinions about various events and situations to mass audience as informative items.

Information provided by mass media can be opinionated, objective, subjective, primary and secondary

Educate - function of the media

Media provides education and information side by side

It provides education in different subjects to people of all levels

They try to educate people directly or indirectly using different forms of content

Dramas, documentaries, interviews, feature stories and many other programs are prepared to educate people indirectly

Entertain - function of the media

Mass media fulfil this function by providing amusement and interest

Newspapers, magazines, radio, television and online medium offer stories, films, serials, and comics to entertain their audience.

Sports, news, film review, columns on art and fashion are other instances

Interpret - function of the media

The mass media do not supply just facts and data but also explanations and interpretation of events and situations.

Media offer explanations and interpreting information to make the reality clear

Unlike normal reporting, interpretation functions provide knowledge

News analysis, commentaries, editorials, and columns are some examples of interpretative contents.

Advertise - function of the media

In the 21st century, media such as television, print, radio, Facebook, attract the public by imparting knowledge and awareness of products and services.

Although costly, such avenues are the preferred mode of advertising

Companies rely on media to market their products and increase sales as the media plays a significant role in advertising.

The Golden Triangle

The sport, the media and sponsorship have a symbiotic relationship - they rely on one another to exist

Different forms of media

Newspapers

Radio

Internet

Television

Social media

Importance of newspapers

Cheap and accessible

Can provide detailed analysis

Local papers often report on minority sports/local

Importance of radio

Allow cheap access to sport

Allow fan interaction - radio phone-in shows

Can cover smaller events that may not get TV coverage

Importance of the internet

Can cover minority sport

Allows interaction with other fans and players

Covers a wide range of sports

Fairly easy to access

Importance of television

Provide role models

Good if free-to-air, shows big events

Usually lots of build-up and analysis

Can be a social event

Importance of social media

Fans can feel part of the action

Allows sports stars to connect with fans

More commercial opportunity

Interaction at live events e.g. seat upgrades

Positives of social media

Help fulfil the 5 functions of media

Can enable fans to feel closer to their sporting heroes and be more involved

Can raise their profile leading to more sponsorship

Athletes can use it to market themselves

To be role models

To promote their sport

Enabled sport to become more commercialised

Negatives of social media

Can create issues for players who say things they later regret or don’t

Provides opportunities to post discriminatory comments, arrange hooliganism, pressure athletes, body shame and can interfere with private life

What makes sport appealing to the mass media?

Offers excitement

Fast paced

Have breaks

Involves aggressive play

Have large fan base

Well known players/role models

Has global appeal

Visual spectacle

Reasonable time scale

The Golden Triangle

The link between sport, sponsorship and the media - they all rely on each other to work

Increased media coverage/involvement in sport has resulted in the rise of televised sport, the creation of sporting celebrities and role models and changes to sport to suit the media

Positives of televised sport

Increased money into sport - can be used to increase training facilities/improve equipment etc

Promotion of minority sports

Increases participation

Promotion of ethnic minority/disability/female role models

Development of different versions of a sport

Negatives of televised sport

Less live attendance - reduces ticket income and affects atmosphere

Cost to fans to view

Lesser known sports receive less coverage - less sponsorship opportunities so bigger gaps in finances

Fewer role models in low profile sports could mean lower participation uptake

Can ignite tensions between crowds

Increases pressures on athlete

Increases deviance due to money involved

Can highlight and exaggerate issues

Can lead to increase in sponsorship deals

Positives of more role models/celebrities

Positive behaviour is imitated

Participation rates increase

If participation rates increase at foundation level, more elite athletes will come through the sports development pyramid

Reputation of player could be enhanced

Reputation of sport is enhanced

Negatives of more role models/celebrities

Poor behaviour is seen as the norm and copied

Reputation of player is damaged

Reputation of sport is damaged

Participation rates decrease because of the above

Viewing figures dip

Players constantly feeling in the spotlight - pressure in social life and to perform

They may not want to be a role model

Changes to sport to suit the media

Timings - e.g. World Cup games in Brazil played in the heat of the day so they were live for prime time in Europe

Format - e.g. lots of breaks in the NFL for advertisement opportunities

Rules

Clothing - e.g. female volleyball players wearing bikinis

How can the media perpetuate stereotypes and dramatise sport?

Sensationalising sporting contests

Through sexploitation of female athletes

Creating national pride

Examples of sport as an avenue for perpetuating stereotypes

Females can’t throw

Black people can’t swim

Black people run faster

Female athletes should be feminine

Ways of sensationalising sporting contests

Sheer number of adverts

Exaggerated

Focus on records/statistics

Animated presenting/commentating

Highlight poor tackles and behaviour on the pitch

Highlight poor behaviour off the pitch

Highlight good behaviour/role model status of athletes

Why does the media sensationalise sporting events?

To add excitement and entertainment in order to increase subscribers to pay per view events, attract more viewers, sell more newspapers, attract more subscribers to online forums

What negatives might sensationalising sporting contests cause?

Ruin careers, affect sponsorship deals, loss of fan base, set a bad example, create unrealistic expectations, lead to disappointment, pressure athletes, encourage use of PEDs, reinforce negative image of a sport

Sexploitation of female athletes

Describes forms of marketing, promotion or attempts to gain media coverage which focus attention on the sexual attributes of female athletes, especially the visibility of their bodies

Problems with sexploitation

Excludes those who do not conform to what the media see as the ‘right’ body type

Puts pressure on female athletes to look a certain way

Puts pressure on girls in society to emulate the way these role models are portrayed

Can reduce sponsorship for those who don’t conform

Can reduce women’s sports credibility

Can turn girls off sport

Could leave women open to sexual harassment

Advantages and disadvantages of creating national pride

Good feeling amongst the country

Increases participation and interest in sport

Depending on the coverage

Potential for hooliganism

Commercialisation

Treating sport as a commodity involving the buying and selling of assets with the market as the driving force behind sport

Sport as a commodity

Sport becomes a commodity when either consumers are willing to pay to play or watch it or if it has a potential exchange value rather than merely just a use

Examples of sport as a commodity for performers

Neymar sold to PSG for 222 million dollars

Examples of sport as a commodity for events

2024 Super Bowl game broadcasted to 123.4 million viewers

Examples of sport as a commodity for teams

Ryan Reynolds and Rob McElhenny buying Wrexham AFC for £2 million

What affects sport as a commodity’s values?

Success

Global appeal

Appearance

Market forces

The economic factors affecting the price of, demand for and availability of commodity

What affects prices in sport?

TV rights, advertising, transfer fees, sponsorship

Impacts of market forces

Greater gap between top and bottom

Greater gap between male and female sport

Encourages deviance

Games are less close and therefore less entertaining

Restricts development of domestic talent

Solutions for market forces’ impacts

Salary caps and transfer caps

Sport and consumerism

Consumerism is about buying things

Sport has high consumerism from teams buying the best players, to fans buying replica kits and merch

What does commercial sport need to succeed?

Sport as entertainment and spectator appeal

Affluent society

Media

Leisure time

Examples of how sport has become commercialised

Purchase of clubs/teams

Hyperinflation of player wages

Commodification of sports brands

TV revenue - NFL collects around $4.6billion from TV

Increased prize money

Advertisement and sponsorship

How have the highest paid athletes made their money?

Winnings - appearances and prize money

Sponsorship deals

Product endorsement/advertising deals

Affiliated merchandise

Club contracts e.g. football

Bonuses

Positive impacts of commercialisation

Increase in professionals results in increased standard and increased viewership

Low participation sports could receive funding

Funding for facilities and equipment

More positive role models which could lead to increased participation