Learning and Memory

I. Unlearned Behaviors

behaviors that we are born with and help us adapt

a. Instincts

Behaviors triggered by a broader range of events ( more complex)

b. Reflexes

Motor/ neural reaction to a specific stimulus (more simple)

II. Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience

III. Associative Learning

When an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together with environment

IV. Classical Conditioning

process by learning to associate stimuli and consequences, to anticipate events

b. (Unconditioned Stimulus)

Stimulus the elicits a reflexive response (food)

c. (Unconditioned Response)

a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus

d. (Neutral Stimulus)

stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response

e. Conditioned Stimulus)

stimulus that elicits a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

f. (Conditioned Response)

the behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus

g. Higher-Order Conditioning

an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, so eventually the new stimulus elicits the conditioned response without the initial condition presented.

h. Acquisition

the initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

i. Extinction

decreases in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS

j. Spontaneous Recovery

the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period

k. Stimulus Discrimination

when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli

l. Stimulus Generalization

when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

m. Habituation

learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change

V. Behaviorism

principles of classical conditioning in the study of human emotion

VI. Operant Conditioning

organisms associate behavior and its consequences

a. Positive

add something

b. Negative

to take something away

c. Reinforcement

increasing a behavior

d. Punishment

decreasing a behavior

e. Positive Reinforcement

something added to increase a behavior

f. Negative Reinforcement

something is removed to increase a behavior

g. Positive Punishment

something added to decrease a behavior

h. Negative Punishment

something removed to decrease a behavior

i. Shaping

a tool used in operant conditioning

j. Primary

those that have innate reinforcing qualities (food or pleasure)

Secondary Reinforcers

those that have no inherent value. Value is learnt and becomes a reinforcer is linked with a primary reinforcer.

k. Continuous Reinforcement

when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior

Partial Reinforcement

the organism does not get reinforced each time they display a desired behavior is learnt

i. Fixed Interval

the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcement is set and unchanging

ii. Variable Interval

the number of responses between reinforcement or the amount of time between reinforcement varies or changes

iii. Fixed Ratio

the schedule based on the time between reinforcements

iv. Variable Ratio

the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements

VII. Observational Learning

learning by watching others and imitating

a. Attention

focus on the behavior

b. Retention

remember when you observed

c. Reproduction

be able to perform the behavior

d. Motivation

must want to copy the behavior

e. Vicarious Reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded making the observer more likely to imitate the models behavior

f. Vicarious Punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the models behavior

g. Bobo Doll Experiment Findings

children watch and learn from the adults around them which can have prosocial and antisocial consequences

II. Encoding

the input of information into the memory system

Storage

The retention of encoded information

a. Automatic Processing

encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

b. Effortful Processing

encoding of details that takes time and effort

c. Semantic Encoding

encoding of words and their meanings

d. Visual Encoding

encoding of images

e. Acoustic Encoding

encoding of sounds

f. Self-Reference Effect

the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparisons to material that has less personal relevance

a. Baddeley & Hitch Model

a model of storage where short- term memory has different forms depending on the type of information received

i. Visuospatial Sketchpad

visual/ spatial information

ii. Episodic Buffer

information from several sources

iii. Phonological Loop

inner speech being used to reactivate/ refresh information

iv. Central Executive

regulates cognitive processes and supervises the flow of information between the systems

b. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

information passes through three distincts stages in order for it to be stored in long term memory

i. Rehearsal

the repetition of information

c. Sensory Memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

d. Short-Term Memory/Working Memory

a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory

e. Memory Consolidation

transfer of stm to long term memory

f. Long-Term Memory

the continuous storage of information, it has no limit

g. Explicit/Declarative Memory

memories of facts and events we can consciously remember and recall/ declare

i. Semantic Memory

knowledge about words, concepts and language

ii. Episodic Memory

information about events we have personally experienced

h. Implicit Memory

memories that are not part of our consciousness

i. Procedural Memory

stores information about how to do things

IV. Retrieval

the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness

a. Recall

being able to access information without cues

b. Recognition

being able to identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again.

c. Relearning

learning information that you previously learned

a. Engrams

the group of neurons that serve as the physical representation of memory

b. Equipotentiality Hypothesis

if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function

c. Amygdala

involved in fear and fear memories, processes emotional information important in encoding memories at a deeper level and memory consolidation

d. Hippocampus

associated with explicit memory, recognition memory and spatial memory. Projects information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories

e. Cerebellum

plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano and classical condition. Damage prevents classical conditioning such as an eye blink in response to a puff of air

f. Prefrontal Cortex

appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks

g. Neurotransmitters

critical for developing new memories.

i. Arousal Theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

h. Flashbulb Memory

a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations

VI. Amnesia

the loss of long term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

a. Anterograde Amnesia

inability to remember new information after point of trauma

b. Retrograde

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma

a. Construction

formulation of new memories

b. Reconstruction

process of bringing up old memories

c. Suggestibility

the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

d. Eyewitness Misidentification

often used in the prosecution of criminals

e. Misinformation Effect Paradigm

after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event

f. False Memory Syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories

g. Repressed Memories

some psychologists believe it is possible to completely repress traumatic childhood memories such as sexual abuse.

a. Forgetting

loss of information from long-term memory

i. Transience/Storage Decay

accessibility of memory decreases over time

ii. Absent mindness

forgetting caused by lapses in attention

iii. Blocking

accessibility of information is temporarily blocked

i. Misattribution

source of memory is confused

iii. Bias

distorted by current belief system

1. Stereotypical Bias

involves racial and gender bias

2. Egocentric Bias

involves enhancing our memories of the past