psychology exam 5

Development psychologists

Study how behavior and mental processes change over the life span 

Cross-sectional designs

• measuring people from different age groups at the same time 

• Prone to cohort effects (people who grew up in one period of time may differ from people who grew up in a different period of time) 

Longitudinal designs

• measuring the same individuals at different points in time 

• Problems with attrition (people dropping out the study) 

Gene-environmental interaction

Gene —> environment —> gene (loop)

Ways to make babies smarter

• Stimulating environment? 

• The “Mozart effect” is short-term and due to arousal 

• No products that can make babies smarter 

• Books on parenting 

• Confusing genetic and environmental influences 

  • e.g., angry dad --> angry baby 

What did Piaget think

thought that children were “little scientists” trying to figure out the world 

Assimilation

absorbing new information into one’s understanding of the world (without revising one’s overall understanding)

Accommodation

revising one’s understanding of the world to fit with new information

Object permanence

• understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view 

  • Children fail such tasks at the sensorimotor stage 

Conservation

• understanding that transforming the physical presentation of a substance (or number of objects) does not change its amount 

  • Children fail such task at the preoperational stage 

Self

• Children can recognize themselves in the mirror at around 18 months 

  • Mirror self-recognition test 

Sex differences 

• Differences beyond socialization 

• David Reimer 

• Hormones affect the brain/mind 

• Toy preferences 

• Differences due to socialization 

• Reinforcement of sex-stereotypical behavior 

Social

• Bowlby’s attachment styles 

• The strange situation procedure 

Secure attachment

distressed when mom leaves, happy when she returns

Insecure-avoidant attachment

no distress when mom leaves, little reaction when she returns

Insecure-anxious attachment

distressed when mom leaves, ambivalent about her return 

Theory of mind

• the ability to reason about what other people know or believe 

• The false-belief task 

Kohlberg’s levels of moral development 

Postconventional

Conventional

Preconventional

Postconventional

focus on internal principles

Conventional

focus on societal values

Preconventional

focus on rewards and punishments

Fluid intelligence

the capacity of learning new ways of solving problems

Crystallized intelligence

accumulated knowledge acquired over time

Cognitive functioning and aging

As people become older adults, they tend to increase in crystallized intelligence but decrease in fluid intelligence 

Abnormality

depends on cultural context, not all abnormalities are bad

Distress

some distress is caused by unpleasant events, some disorders may not consistently cause stress

Impairment

not all impairments are due to disorders

• DSM (1^st edition 1952) 

  • Current edition: DSM-5 

Potential dangers in using diagnostic labels: 

• Labels create preconceptions that affect our thoughts and behavior 

• People often have inaccurate and unkind beliefs about people with psychological disorders 

• Media influences 

• Believing that those with psychological disorders are dangerous 

Benefits of using diagnostic labels: 

• Enables professionals to efficiently communicate about cases 

• Helps to identify proper courses of treatment 

Anxiety disorder

• Generalized anxiety disorder 

• Panic disorder 

• Phobias 

• Post-traumatic stress disorder 

• Obsessive-compulsive disorder 

Generalized anxiety disorder

Core features: 

• Continually tense and uneasy – even in the absence of any specific anxiety-provoking stimulus 

• Excessive anxiety occurring most days and lasting at least 6 months 

• Disrupts normal functioning (social relationships, ability to work, etc.) 

Panic disorder

• Panic attacks – characterized by sudden onset of fear of disaster or losing control, strong physical reaction (racing heart, sweating, breathing problems, dizziness, etc.) 

• Intense worry about when the next attack will happen 

• Avoidance of places where attacks have occurred in the past 

Panic attacks

characterized by sudden onset of fear of disaster or losing control, strong physical reaction (racing heart, sweating, breathing problems, dizziness, etc.)

Phobias

• Excessive or irrational fear of a specific type of object or situation (e.g., spiders, small spaces, flying) 

• Reactions are uncontrollable 

• In some cases, phobias can result from a traumatic incident 

Post-traumatic stress disorder

• Results from experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event (e.g., war, abuse, natural disaster) 

• Characterized by flashbacks (reliving traumatic episode), avoiding reminders of the traumatic event, and hyperarousal (being on “edge”) 

Obsessive-compulsive disorders

• Obsessive thoughts or urges that are unwanted, persistent, and stress-inducing 

• e.g., concerns about cleanliness or order 

Compulsions

• repetitive behaviors or thoughts that are driven by obsessions 

  • e.g., hand washing, checking, counting 

Mood disorders

• Major depressive disorder 

• Bipolar disorder 

Major depressive disorder

• Affects 16% of Americans 

• Can be detrimental to social relationships 

• Depressed people may not be reinforced by seeking pleasurable activities (so they may stop trying) 

• Depressed people may process negative info more than positive info 

Symptoms of major depressive disorder (DSM-5)

• Depressed mood 

• Loss of interest or pleasure 

• Change in weight or appetite 

• Insomnia or hypersomnia 

• Psychomotor retardation or agitation 

• Loss of energy or fatigue 

• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt 

• Impaired concentration or decisiveness 

• Thoughts of death or suicidal ideation (or attempt) 

Bipolar disorder

• Alternating between depression and mania 

• Mania is characterized by euphoria, grandiose self-esteem, and hyperactivity 

Diathesis-stress model

many psychological disorders may be caused by a genetic predisposition (diathesis) and stress that acts as a trigger

Diametrical disorders of the social brain (Crespi & Badcock’s theory) 

• Autism-spectrum disorders 

• Low social cognition 

• Mechanistic thinking 

• Psychotic-spectrum disorders (e.g., schizophrenia) 

• Very high social cognition 

• Mentalistic thinking 

Suicide

• More than 30,000 people die by suicide in US each year (11^th leading cause of death) 

• People coming out of depression are MORE likely to attempt suicide 

  • Increased initiative 

Interpersonal theory of suicide Thomas Joiner 

Three factors: 

• Thwarted belongingness 

• Not feeling connected to others 

• Perceived burdensomeness 

• Feeling that others would be better off if one were dead 

• Capability for suicide 

• Lack of fear of death or pain, overcoming self-preservation instincts 

Psychotherapy

• Psychological intervention designed to help people resolve emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal problems and improve the quality of their lives 

• Many types of providers (both professionals and non-professionals) 

• There are over 500 types (some based on evidence and some not) 

The “Dodo bird” verdict 

• the idea that all forms of psychotherapy are roughly equal in effectiveness 

• Some meta-analyses suggest the major categories of therapy (psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, etc.) are similar in effectiveness 

• Some evidence that certain forms of therapy can be harmful (e.g., “reliving” traumatic episodes can be bad for those with PTSD) 

• Characteristics of the therapist can sometimes be more important than the type of therapy in determining effectiveness 

• Good therapists are warm and direct, they get feedback from clients, etc. 

Carl Rogers’s three conditions 

• Genuineness (or authenticity) 

• Unconditional positive regard 

• Empathic understanding 

Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT)

Attempt to replace irrational thoughts and maladaptive behaviors 

Shaping behaviors 

e.g., systematic desensitization (having clients relax while being exposed to feared stimuli in a stepwise manner) 

Shaping cognitions 

• e.g., rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) 

• People respond to the same events in very different ways 

• People's beliefs determine whether they will respond in desirable or undesirable ways 

• Therapists help clients to dispute irrational beliefs and encourage rational/effective beliefs 

The ABCs of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) 

Third wave therapies 

• Focus on awareness of all aspects of mind, beliefs, etc. 

• Urge clients to accept all of their thoughts (but still recognize irrational beliefs) 

• Often employ mindfulness mediation 

Psychopharmacotherapy

the use of medications to treat psychological problems

few comments:

• Scientists don’t know how many of these meds work 

• There are no optimal levels of neurotransmitters 

• Changes in the brain occur from both psychotherapy and psychopharmacology 

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - commonly referred to as “shock treatments” 

–It can effectively treat severe depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia (typically 6-10 treatments) 

–Only used when all other treatment fail 

–Patients receive a muscle relaxer and are anesthetized during the procedure 

“Attrition” refers to _______.

–A. the fact that people who grew up in one time period may differ from those who grew up in a different one

–B. revising one’s view of the world to fit with new info

–C. people dropping out of a longitudinal study

–D. the stigma of psychological disorders

–C. people dropping out of a longitudinal study

According to the interpersonal theory of suicide, which factor(s) lead to the desire for suicide?

•A. thwarted belongingness

•B. perceived burdensomeness

•C. capability for suicide

•D. A and B

•E. A, B, and C

E. A, B, and C

The overall number of disorders contained in the DSM __________ over time.

–A. stays the same

–B. has been increasing

–C. has been decreasing

B. has been increasing

Suppose someone were to avoid stepping on cracks in the sidewalk out of fear for their families safety. This behavior would be most indicative of ________.

–A. PTSD

–B. Generalize Anxiety Disorder

–C. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

–D. Bipolar Disorder

C. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Which of the following criteria are most often used to identify psychologically disordered behavior?

–A. distress

–B. impairment

–C. abnormality

–D. all of the above

–E. only A and B

E. only A and B

Which task is used as a measure of children’s capacity for theory of mind?

–A. the strange situation procedure

–B. conservation tasks

–C. object permanence tasks

–D. the false-belief task

D. the false-belief task

According to Kohlberg, people who focus on societal values operate at which level of moral development?

–A. preconventional

–B. conventional

–C. postconventional

–D. none of the above

B. conventional

Which of the following psychologists focused most on characteristics of the therapist as being central to psychotherapy?

–A. Kohlberg

–B. Piaget

–C. Joiner

–D. Rogers

D. Rogers