Applied Psychology - Unit 1

Alpha bias

The tendency to exaggerate differences between groups (e.g. men and women)

Sympathetic division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats (e.g. fight or flight)

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals (e.g. serotonin) in the brain and nervous system that transmit signals from one neuron to another across synapses

Neurochemistry

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience

Genome lag

Changes to the environment occur much more rapidly than changes to our genes

Sex hormones

Chemicals circulating in the bloodstream that affect the physical development and behaviour of females and males

EEA (Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness)

Habitats in which a species evolved its most recent adaptations (ended in humans around 10,000 years ago)

Genotype

An individuals total set of genes

Aggression

Behaviour intended to cause psychological or physical injury

Survival of the fittest

Natural selection selects the genes giving rise to characteristics that promote survival and reproduction

Memory scripts

Knowledge of behaviours, roles, outcomes, etc. stored in memory tell us what to expect in a social situation and how to behave

Culture

Norms and values that exist within any group of people

Evolution

Changed in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations

Genes

Inherited DNA with instructions for building physical characteristics that influence behaviour

Central nervous system

Consists of brain and spinal cord, it's where complex decisions are made

Hostile attribution bias

The tendency to assume a persons behaviour is aggressive when it's actually neutral

Fundamental attribution error

Focusing on someone's personal characteristics over the role of the situation when explaining reasons for their behaviour

Cognitive bias

Errors in how we process information that affect our attention, memory & decision making

Cognitive scripts

Knowledge of behaviours, roles, outcomes, etc. stored in memory tell us what to expect in a social situation and how to behave

Associative priming

We process a stimulus more quickly (or recall it more easily) because we earlier encountered a stimulus that is often paired with it

Semantic priming

Process stimulus quicker because we earlier encountered a stimulus related to it in meaning

Repetition priming

We process a stimulus quicker because we encountered it earlier

Cognitive priming

We notice a stimulus quicker when we see or hear a related stimulus first

Rationalisation

Parts of a memory are distorted to fit in with our schema, to make a memory more meaningful

Confabulation

When details are added to a memory to fill in gaps to make recall meaningful

Shortening

When parts of a memory are left out, what remains is shorter

Cue

'Trigger' that allows us to access material in a memory

Recall

In free recall an individual generates information without a cue, in cued recall the cue assists the retrieval of information

Recognition

A form of memory retrieval where you identify something based on previous experience

Sensory memory (SM)

Memory stores for each of our five senses (capacity is huge but duration is brief)

Long term memory (LTM)

The permanent memory store, unlimited capacity and duration

Short term memory (STM)

The limited capacity memory, between 5-9 items stored with a duration of 18-30 seconds without rehersal

Encoding

The process of converting information from one form to another so it can be stored & passed between memory stores

Duration

The length of time information can be stored

Capacity

The amount of information that can be stored

Computer analogy

Human minds are like a computer with input process & output stages

Information processing

Behaviour can be understood in terms of information flowing through the cognitive system

Learned response

A behaviour acquired through conditioning, either association or rewards

Social context

Influences from other people, either individually or in groups

Neurochemistry

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

Beta bias

The tendency to minimise or ignore differences between groups (e.g. men and women)

Sex

Sex chromosomes either XY or XX

Phenotype

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Intrinsic motivation

Engaging in behaviour to gain an internal reward (e.g. personal pleasure or enjoyment)

Hostile aggression bias

Assuming a persons behaviour is aggressive when it's neutral

Instrumental aggression

Goal directed or planned aggression usually not accompanied by physiological arousal

Sexual selection

Attributes/ behaviours that increase reproductive success are more likely to be passed on & may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring

Lateralisation

Two halves of the brain are functionally different, each hemisphere has functional specialisations

Localisation of function

The specific brain areas that control and regulate specific activities

Neuroanatomy

The structure of the brain & other parts of the nervous system

Imitation

Copying the behavior of another person

Observation

Actively watching the behaviour of others (learning assumption)

Negative reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus, makes the behaviour more likely to be repeated (eat your veg and you don't have to wash the dishes)

Punishment

The consequence of behaviour is unpleasant, making the behaviour less likely to be repeated

Operant conditioning

Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)

Classical conditioning

A neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus so that a new stimulus response is learnt

Reinforcement

A behaviour followed by a consequence that increases the probability of it being repeated

Positive reinforcement

The consequence of a behaviour is pleasant, making it more likely to be repeated (clean your room and you get pocket money)

Modelling

An observer imitating the behaviour of a model or a model demonstrating a behaviour

Self efficacy

A persons confidence in their ability to achieve success

Self image

Someone's awareness of their mental & physical characteristics, based on positive & negative beliefs about themselves

Self esteem

How a person values themselves and the extent to which they accept & like themselves

Self concept

How someone perceives and thinks about themselves

Social facilitation

The tendency to perform better when a person knows they are being watched/others are present

Groupthink

The tendency of groups to strive for agreement over considering alternatives

Common goals

The outcomes of group activity that all members share and work towards

Roles

The functions people perform (e.g. in a group) usually a task

Group cohesion

The extent to which group members are psychologically bonded and 'pull in the same direction'

Social catagorisation

Putting people into social groups based on their shared characteristics (e.g. ethnicity)

Internalisation

An individual goes along with the group opinion because they genuinely believe it's correct (change of private views)

Identification

Temporarily going along with the norms & roles of the group because they see membership as a part of their identity

Compliance

Doesn't privately agree with the majority but goes along with it, usually to not be rejected

Informational Social Influence (ISI)

Agreeing with the behaviour of others because we believe it is correct (accept it because we want to be correct)

Normative Social Influence (NSI)

Agreeing with others behaviour because we want to avoid rejection (being accepted)

Remembering

The activity of retrieving information from a memory store

Conformity

A change in a person's behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people

Confirmation bias

We pay more attention to information that supports our existing beliefs (ignoring contradictory information)

Transgender

Not corresponding with your birth sex

Non-binary

Suggestion that gender can't be divided into two catagories

Gender fluid

Not having a fixed gender

Gender dysphoria

Feeling of discomfort with gender assigned to a person at birth

Gender

The label of being male or female (construct rather than biological sex)

Binary

The choice of two states (e.g. male/female, on/off)

Androgyny

Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine characteristics in a personality

Vicarious reinforcement

Reinforcement stemming from a person seeing another person being reinforced

Extraversion

A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, outgoing & thrill-seeking

SRY gene

Sex determining region of the Y chromosome (triggers appearance of testes in embryo)

Schema

A mental package of beliefs & expectations that influence memory (changing memory through shortening, rationalisation & confabulation)

Reconstructive memory

Pieces of stored information are reassembled during recall. The process is guided by our schemas so that we produce a "memory" that makes sense. (even if it is inaccurate)

Bandwagon effect

Behaviour change or making decisions because 'everyone else is doing it'

Social proof

Looking to others for guidance when we are not sure what to do as they are better informed

Neuromarketing

The application of scientific study of the brain to marketing

Scanning techniques

Methods used to investigate the brain & other parts of the body (e.g. facial coding, eye tracking)

Intra-group dynamics

The psychological processes that take place in any group

Steryotypes

A generalised/oversimplified belief about a group of people

Introversion

Dimension of personality in which people tend to be quiet, shy & withdrawn

Parasympathetic division

Part of ANS, reduces physiological arousal (e.g. rest & digest response)

Motor branch

The part of the somatic nervous system that sends signals from the CNS to voluntary muscles.

Traits

Distinct characteristics that make up a personality (e.g. shyness, friendliness)