Philosophy and Ethics: Arguments, Virtue, Kant, Utilitarianism, and Bioethics

What is a valid argument?

An argument where the conclusion logically follows from the premises, making it impossible for all premises to be true and the conclusion false.

What is a sound argument?

A valid argument that has all true premises.

What are the six psychological limitations that interfere with assessments of information?

1. Skepticism toward contrary evidence 2. Confirmation bias 3. Disconfirmation bias 4. Motivated reasoning 5. Availability error 6. Dunning-Kruger effect

What is required for moral excellence according to Aristotle?

Doing the right thing, for the right reason, and with the right emotion.

What is Aristotle's doctrine of the mean?

Virtue is the mean between two extremes of excess and deficiency, with the right mean depending on the person and situation.

What are the central claims of virtue ethics?

Virtue ethics focuses on developing a virtuous character, with moral actions arising from good judgment, right action, and proper emotion.

What criticism do virtue ethicists raise against Kant's account of moral worth?

They argue that Kant's view is too rigid as it dismisses the importance of emotions in moral actions.

What is the categorical imperative according to Kant?

A principle stating to act only on a rule that you can will to become a universal law.

What does the formula of humanity mean?

To treat every rational being as an end in themselves and never merely as a means.

What is the 'swine morality' objection to utilitarianism?

It claims that focusing solely on pleasure reduces humans to the level of animals, which is a problem for Bentham's utilitarianism.

What is the principle of utility?

Act to create the greatest amount of happiness and the least amount of suffering for the greatest number of people.

What is paternalism in a medical context?

When a medical professional overrides a patient's choice for their own good, conflicting with the patient's autonomy.

What is informed consent?

Voluntary agreement to a treatment with adequate understanding of the relevant information.

What are the three standards for informed consent?

1. Professional standard 2. Reasonable person standard 3. Subjective standard.

What is the criticism of randomized clinical trials?

They may be morally problematic because control groups might not receive the best treatment.

What is Don Marquis's argument against abortion?

Abortion is wrong because it deprives the fetus of a valuable future, making it morally similar to killing an adult.

What does Judith Jarvis Thomson's unconscious violinist thought experiment illustrate?

Even if a fetus is considered a person, it does not have the right to use a woman's body without consent, making abortion morally permissible.

What is the principle of potentiality in the abortion debate?

It states that a fetus has a right to life because it will become a person.

What criticism does Bonnie Steinbock raise against the principle of potentiality?

She argues that a potential person is not an actual person and does not yet have rights.

What is the criticism of virtue ethics based on situationism?

Situationism suggests that behavior is more influenced by circumstances than stable character traits, challenging the idea that virtue alone explains moral behavior.

What is the difference between consequentialism and utilitarianism?

Consequentialism judges actions by their outcomes, while utilitarianism specifically seeks to maximize overall good.

What is hedonic utilitarianism?

A form of utilitarianism that defines good as maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.

What is the role of motive in Kant's ethics?

An action has moral worth only if it is done from duty, not from desire or emotion.

What is the conflict between paternalism and patient autonomy?

Paternalism may override a patient's choices, which can conflict with their right to make autonomous decisions.

Why do some ethicists find randomized clinical trials morally problematic?

They argue that control groups may not receive the best treatment, potentially harming participants.